1. AP Psychology Mr. Cruikshank
Modules Summer Work
AP Psychology
Mr. Cruikshank

2. Psychology – What is it? The science of behavior and mental processes
Behavior: Observable actions of a person or an animal
Mental processes: thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences

3. Psychology – What is it? Is Psychology a science?? YES! Science
An objective way to answer questions
Based on observable facts/data and well described methods
YES!

4. Psychology – What is it?? A set of questions about mental functioning
trace back to philosophy
Aristotle asked about memory, personality, emotions, etc.
A set of theories and procedures for asking and answering questions
the scientific method
evolved over centuries, first in physics
A product of history
philosophy asked many of the basic questions
physiology used similar methods

5. Developments from Philosophy
Major question asked by many philosophers:
How are the mind and the body related??
Many different theories
Dualism – Mind and body are two separate entities, however they are interrelated
origins in medieval religion
soul is seat of intellectual function and will
mind is product of the soul
mind not subject to scientific inquiry
to challenge this was punishable by death

6. Developments from Philosophy
Dualism – Mind and body are separate
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) came up with a theory of modified dualism
since animals have no soul, much behavior does not require soul
the body can therefore control much behavior
led him to study reflexes
the soul’s main function is thought, a uniquely human attribute

7. Developments from Philosophy
Other theories developed about the relationship between the mind and the body
Materialism: Thomas Hobbes ( )
mind is a product of the brain
soul is not involved in human behavior
Empiricism:
knowledge and intellect are acquired, comes from experience
science flourishes through observation/experiment
sensory experiences produce elementary ideas
elementary ideas become associated into complex thought and ideas

8. Developments from Philosophy
Another MAJOR question asked by early philosophers was: Where do our ideas come from?
Empiricism vs. Nativism
Nativism: elementary ideas are innate
Empiricism: our minds are a blank slate, to be filled by our experiences
If nativism is true…
What is the purpose of education?
Can intellect be changed by experience
NATURE VS. NURTURE

9. Developments from Philosophy

10. Foundations of Modern Psychology
Charles Darwin ( )
Theory of natural selection (1859)
physical characteristics evolve through natural selection
behavioral patterns also influence selection
inborn knowledge and behavioral tendencies with survival value are passed on
Human beings are part of nature and can be understood through the methods of science

11. Foundations of Modern Psychology
Darwin’s theory encouraged scientific inquiry
19th century developments in physiology demonstrated the approach to use
based on scientific methods, controlled laboratory experiments
influential beliefs from early physiology
reflexology - all human behaviors occur through reflexes
localization of function - specific structures of the brain serve specific functions in the control of mental experiences and behavior
Separated from philosophy in 19th century
influences from physiology remain

12. Foundations of Modern Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt ( )
First psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany
wrote the first psychology textbook
applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind
Used introspection – self- examination of one’s own emotional states and mental processes
No longer in use – too unreliable/subjective

13. Foundations of Modern Psychology
Edward Titchener
Was an English student of Wundt
Set up a psych lab at Cornell in 1892.
Established a school of thought known as structuralism
Structuralism – Consciousness can be broken down into basic parts using introspection techniques

14. Foundations of Modern Psychology
William James
American Harvard Professor
Wrote a well-respected textbook Principles of Psychology (1890).
Founded school of thought known as functionalism
Stressed looking at the function/purpose of behavior and tried to apply findings to practical situations.
No longer in use but gave rise to behaviorism

15. Foundations of Modern Psychology
G. Stanley Hall (American)
Established the first psych lab in the US at Johns Hopkins (1883)
Established the first psych journal in the US
Founded the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1892 and was its first president
Mary Whiton Calkins
Completed Ph.D. in Psych under James at Harvard but not granted degree because she was a woman
Received a lesser degree from Radcliffe.
First woman president of the APA in 1905

16. Foundations of Modern Psychology

17. John B. Watson Founder of Behaviorism
Studied only observable and objectively described acts
Emphasized objective and scientific methodology
p. 8 Discovering psy
John B. Watson (1878–1958)

18. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Behaviorist Russian Physiologist
Studied learning through associations in animals
Emphasized the study of observable behaviors

19. B.F. Skinner Behaviorist American psychologist at Harvard
Focused on learning through rewards and observation
studied learning and effect of reinforcement
p. 8 Discovering psy
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

20. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Austrian physician that focused on illness
Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective
Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts

21. Freud’s Influence Influence on “pop culture” Freudian slips
Anal-retentive
Influence on psychology
Psychodynamic theory
Unconscious thoughts
Significance of childhood experiences

22. Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow (1902-1987) (1908-1970)
Helped to create Humanistic Psychology
Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual’s free will
Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.

23. Wolfgang Kohler Created Gestalt Psychology
The whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
Wolfgang Kohler
( )

24. What do you see?
You See the whole picture first rather than the individual dots that make it up. – Gestalt Psychology

25. Foundations of Modern Psychology
Margaret Floy Washburn
First woman to earn a PhD in psychology
2nd woman president of the APA
Francis Cecil Sumner (US)
First African American Ph.D. in psychology
Clark University
Started Psych department at Howard University
Kenneth Clark (US)
Documented the harmful effect of school segregation on Black children.
First African-American APA president (1971)

26. Psychology’s Subfields
Basic Research
Aim is to increase our scientific knowledge base.
Study is conducted to satisfy curiosity and answer questions we have about behavior or mental processes.
Applied Research/Psychology
Aim is to solve practical problems
Looks for ways that research psychology can be made useful and helpful

27. Subfields in Psychology
Distribution of Fields:
Industrial/Organizational 3%
Biological and Experimental
16%
Social/Personality 8%
Educational 3%
Other Psychology
15%
Developmental 6%
School 3%
Clinical 36%
Counseling 10%

28. Professional Work Settings
Private
Practice
Government
Universities &
College
Business
& Industry
School
Employment Settings of Psychologists
Colleges and universities
Clinical settings
Elementary and secondary schools
Business
Government

29. Psychology Careers Clinical Psychologists
Largest group of practitioners
Involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
Duties include psychological testing, interviewing and therapy
Psychiatrist
Medical doctor dealing with psychological disorders
Provide medical treatments as well as psychological treatment
Only one who can prescribe medicine!

30. Psychology Careers Counseling Psychologists
Often work with clients whose problems are of a moderate degree
Many specialize in marital or family counseling
School Psychologists
Concerned with social, intellectual, and emotional development of students
Often test students for special programs
Educational Psychologists
Involved in teacher training, curriculum design and other related educational processes

31. Psychology Careers Industrial/Organizational Psychologists
Work in business and industry
Attempt to improve productivity
May develop employee selection programs, work with advertisers, study consumer behavior, etc.
Social Psychologists
Experimental psychologists who study social situations
Study topics such as conformity, obedience, leadership style
Developmental Psychologists
Research behavior changes occurring across the life span that are due to maturation and development.

32. Psychology Careers Health Psychologist
Factors in prevention and treatment of illness
Relationships between doctor/patient/family
Forensic Psychologists
Study topics include criminal behavior, eyewitnesses, victims, jury selection
Sport Psychologist
Maximize athletic performance
Benefits of exercise
Human Factors Psychologist
Making technology user friendly
Works with companies who create new technology

33. Psychological Perspectives
Method of classifying a collection of ideas
Also called “schools of thought”
Also called “psychological approaches”
To view behavior from a particular perspective

34. Perspectives Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena
Psychology has multiple perspectives
Neuroscience
Psychoanalytic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Cognitive
Social-Cultural
Evolutionary
Behavior Genetics

35. Neuroscience Perspective
Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior
Looks at the physical causes of behavior
Brain Chemistry/Anatomy
Genetics
Hormones
Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences

36. Behavioral Perspective
Focuses on environmental causes
Behavior comes from learning
Rewards and Punishment, Observational Learning
Observable behavior is very important
Not interested in internal world

37. Cognitive Perspective
How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior ?
Focuses on internal sentences, thinking/rationality and processing information
Behavior is shaped by our way of thinking/interpreting information
How do we process what is happening around us?

38. Humanistic Perspective
Humanistic approach
developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’
focus on conscious forces and self perception
All humans are good
Approach stresses interpersonal relations
Important concepts: self-esteem, free will, choice, self- direction – Our behavior is motivated by our desire to fulfill our needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

39. Psychoanalytic Perspective
both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences
drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior
Traumatic experience in childhood was repressed to the unconscious and is shaping our behavior today
Early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations
Also looks at parental relationships

40. Socio-cultural
The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups
How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture?
Looks at group roles/expectations, along with family traditions
Gender Roles/socioeconomic class
Peer Pressure/Family Pressure/Media Influences

41. Evolutionary Perspective
Goes back to Darwin’s theory of natural selection
Genes predispose us to act
Our motive is survival and to pass on genes
All behavior is driven by survival of species
A behavior that we do today was helpful for our ancestors to survive

42. Behavior Genetics
Focus: How behavior is affected by genes and the environment
Combines biology and behaviorism
Emphasis on the importance of both genetic and environmental factors on behavior

44. Perspectives Timeline

45. The Scientific Method of Research
Definition: Assumptions, attitudes and procedures that guide researchers in generating questions to investigate, in generating evidence and in drawing conclusions
Assume behavior follows consistent patterns with cause and effect
Attitude of open mindedness and critical thinking
Procedure of steps to follow in order to arrive at the truth.
Empirical Evidence – data that is the result of objective observation, measurement, and experimentation
Pseudoscience – a FAKE or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence

46. Problems that can occur:
Hindsight bias – the tendency to believe after learning the outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Common Sense is often wrong!
Overconfidence – we tend to think we know more than we do
Rule of Falsifiability – to scientifically test a claim there must be identifiable evidence that could prove the claim false.
We must have critical thinking when doing research. Do not blindly accept arguments/conclusions.
Instead, examine the evidence and look for alternative solutions/explanations

47. Problems that can occur:
Barnum Effect
“There’s a sucker born every minute”
Statements can gull people into thinking they have been accurately assessed by the speaker or test when in fact the outcome could apply to anyone.
Individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people
Provide partial explanations for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, and some types of personality tests

48. Other Biases
Confirmation Bias – our tendency to search for information that confirms our beliefs and ignore those that don’t
Researcher Bias – the tendency to notice evidence which supports one particular point of view or hypothesis
Volunteer Bias – People who volunteer to participate in a survey are different from those who do not
Participant Bias – Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed.
Do you act the same way in the classroom that you do at home?
Also known as Hawthorne Effect