1.  Image Enhancement in Spatial Domain

2.  Spatial domain process on images can be described as g(x, y) = T[f(x, y)] ◦ where f(x,y) is the input image, g(x,y) is the output image, T is an operator ◦ T operates on the neighbors of (x, y)  a square or rectangular sub-image centered at (x,y) to yield the output g(x, y).

4.  The simplest form of T is the neighborhood of size 1  1.  g depends on the value of f at (x, y) which is a gray level transformation as s = T(r) ◦ where r and s are the gray-level of f(x, y) and g(x, y) at any point (x, y). ◦ Enhancement of any point depends on that point only.  Point processing  Larger neighborhood provides more flexibility. ◦ Mask processing or filtering

6.  Three basic functions used in image enhancement ◦ Linear (negative and identity transformation) s = L-1-r ◦ Logarithmic (log and inverse log) s = c log(1+r) ◦ Power law (nth power and nth root transformation) s = cr  or s = c(r+  ) 

11.   correction ◦ The CRT devices have an intensity-to-voltage response which is a power function. ◦ ranges from 1.8 to 2.5 ◦ Without  correction, the monitor output will become darker than the original input.

14.  Piecewise-Linear Transformation Functions ◦ Contrast stretching

16.  The histogram of a digital image with gray-levels in the range [0, L-1] is a discrete function h(r k ) = n k where r k is the kth level and n k is the number of pixels having the gray-level r k.  A normalized histogram h(r k )=n k /n, n is the total number of pixels in the image.

18.  Histogram equalization is to find a transformation s = T(r) 0  r  1 that satisfies the following conditions: ◦ T(r) is single-valued and monotonically increasing in the interval 0  r  1 ◦ 0  T(r)  1 for 0  r  1 ◦ T(r) is single-valued so that its inverse function exist.

20.  The gray-level in an image may be viewed as a random variable, so we let p r (r) and p s (s) denote the probability density function of random variables r and s.  If p r (r) and T(r) are known and T -1 (s) is single- valued and monotonically increased function then  Assume the transformation function as where w is a dummy variable, s = T(r) is a cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the random variable r.

21.  Proof

22.  For discrete case p r (r k ) = n k /n for k = 0,1….L-1  The discrete version of the transformation function is s k = T(r k ) =  Advantage: ◦ automatic, without the need for parameter specifications.

25.  Given the input image with p r (r), and the specific output image with p z (z), find the transfer function between the r and z.  Let s = T(r) =  Define a random variable z with the property G(z) = = s  From the above equations G(z) = T(r) we have z = G -1 (s) = G -1 [T(r)]

26.  For discrete case:  From given histogram p r (r k ), k=0, 1,….L-1 s k = T(r k ) =  From given histogram p z (z i ), i=0, 1,…L-1 v k = G(z k ) = = s k  Finally, we have G(z k ) = T(r k ), and z k =G -1 (s k )=G -1 [T(r k )]

27. 1. Obtain the histogram of each given image. 2. Pre-compute a mapped level s k for each level r k. 3. Obtain the transformation function G from given p(z) 4. Precompute z k for each value s k using iterative scheme as follows: 1.To find z k = G -1 (s k ) = G -1 (v k ), however, it may not exist such z k. 2.Since we are dealing with integer, the closest we can get to satisfying G(z k ) – s k = 0 5. For each pixel in the original image, if the value of that pixel is r k, map this value to its corresponding levels s k ; then map level s k into the final level z k.

29.  Spatial filtering: using a filter kernel ( which is a subimage, w(x, y)) to operate on the image f(x,y).  The response R of the pixel (x, y) after filtering is R = w(-1, -1)f(x-1, y-1) +w(-1, 0)f(x-1, y)+….+w(0, 0)f(x, y)+….+w(1, 0)f(x+1, y)+w(1, 1)f(x+1, y+1) The output image g(x,y) is:

32. 3.6 Smoothing Spatial Filters Weighted Averaging

35.  Median Filter ◦ The response is based on ordering (ranking) the pixels contained in the image area encompassed by the filter, and then replacing the value of the center pixel with the value determined by the ranking result  For certain noise, such as salt-and-pepper noise, median filter is effective.

37.  Image averaging – low-pass filtering – image blurring –spatial integration  Image sharpening – high-pass filtering – spatial differentiation. ◦ It enhances the edges and the other discontinuities ◦ First order difference is  f/  x = f(x+1, y) - f(x, y)  f/  y = f(x, y+1) - f(x, y) ◦ Second order difference  2 f/  x 2 = f(x+1, y) + f(x-1, y) - 2f(x, y)

39.  Isotropic filter, rotational invariant- Laplacian  2 f =  2 f/  x 2 +  2 f/  y 2  2 f = [f(x+1,y)+f(x-1,y)+f(x, y+1)+f(x, y-1)]- 4f(x,y)

41.  Image enhancement g(x,y)=f(x,y)   2 f(x,y) g(x,y)=f(x,y) +  2 f(x,y)  Unsharp masking f s (x,y)=f(x,y) - f*(x,y), where f*(x,y) is the blurred image.  High boost filtering f hb (x,y)=Af(x,y)-f*(x,y)=(A-1)f(x,y)+f(x,y)-f*(x,y) =(A-1)f (x,y)+f s (x,y) ◦ Using Laplacian f hb (x,y)=Af(x,y)  2 f (x,y) f hb (x,y)=Af(x,y)+  2 f (x,y)

42. Shapening 的結果可能會有負值； 要做 rescaling 把灰階的範圍調回 0~255 找出最小值 t ；如果 t<0 ，把所有 的像素加上 |t| 。 找出最大值 M ：如果 M>255 ，重 新計算每一點灰階 p ； p’=(p/M)x255 p’ 代表最後的灰階值。

46.   f(x,y)=[G x, G y ]=[  f/  x,  f/  y ]   f(x,y)=mag (  f )=[G x 2, G y 2 ] 1/2 =[(  f/  x) 2 +(  f/  y) 2 ] 1/2  Robert operator G x =  f/  x=z 9 -z 5 G y =  f/  y =z 8 -z 6  f(x,y)= [(z 9 -z 5 ) 2, (z 8 -z 6 ) 2 ] 1/2 =|z 9 -z 5 |+|z 8 -z 6 | Sobel operator  f(x,y)=|z 7 +2z 8 +z 9 )-(z 1 +2z 2 +z 3 )| +|(z 3 +2z 6 +z 9 )-(z 1 +2z 4 +z 7 )|

48. 3.8 Combining Spatial Enhancement Methods