1. PSY 620P April 21, 2015

3. SES and… For mom’s work adaptation predicted by interaction of length of leave with (1) SES and (2) Perceived child care quality Perceived child care quality (Feldman et al., 2004)

4. Waldinger, Vaillant, & Orav (2007) Marchante

5.  The impact of childhood relationships on later depression is unclear  Most studies assess adversity and neglect as risk factors  Some research showed poor parent relationships may be a risk factor  However, few studies have assessed sibling relationships ▪ Sibling conflict in middle childhood has been associated with anxiety, depression, and delinquency in adolescence ▪ Better relationships with siblings in early adolescence associated with less loneliness, depression, and substance abuse in mid- adolescence ▪ For adults, sibling relationships have been associated with mental health in cross-sectional designs Marchante

6.  Issues with current studies assessing effects of childhood relationships on later mental health:  Retrospective data (risk of memory bias)  Prospective longitudinal studies do not assess over long period of time (e.g., only childhood to adolescence)  Most predict depression at specific time point (consider episodic nature of depression)  Purpose of this study:  Does quality of childhood sibling relationships predict major depression in adulthood? Marchante

7. Hypothesis 1:  Distant/dysfunctional sibling relationships and absence of close relationship with at least one sibling in childhood would predict major depression in 1 st three decades of adulthood (controlling for parenting quality and family history of depression) Hypothesis 2:  Poorer quality sibling relationships would increase use of mood-altering drugs (e.g., tranquilizers, sleeping pills, and stimulants) Exploratory aim:  Is predictive power of childhood sibling relationships specific to adult depression or does it predict other forms of psychopathology? Marchante

8.  Participants  268 healthy, white male college students (ages 18-19) recruited between 1939-1942 ▪ “Sample chosen specifically for excellent mental health” ▪ 12 dropped out, 8 died in WWII; Final sample=229 Marchante

9.  Assessments  Time 1: Psychiatrist and family worker rated the following based on self report, parent interview, and developmental history (3 point scale) ▪ Sibling relationship ▪ Parenting quality ▪ Family history of depression (note: also self report when men were 60 years old)  Time 2 and beyond: ▪ Measures completed every 2 years ▪ Re-interviewed by study staff at age 25, 30, and 50 Marchante

10.  Predictor variables  Sibling relationship  Parenting quality  Death of parent in childhood  Family history of depression (parent report at time 1 and self-report in adulthood)  Outcome variables  Categorical diagnosis of Major Depression between age 20 and 50 ▪ Based on 8 correlates of MDD according DSM-III diagnosis  Frequency of mood-altering drug use ▪ Based on frequency of use between ages 30-50 as reported in biennial questionnaires  Alcohol abuse/dependence ▪ Based on all information, 2 raters combined scores for dichotomous variable on alcohol abuse at any point between ages 20-50 Marchante

11.  Step 1:  Four predictors (sibling, mother, father, and both parents combined relationship quality) divided into 3 categories: ▪ Poor, average, good  Step 2:  Chi-squares: quality of family relationship x depression; same for mood altering drugs and alcohol dependence  Step 3:  Binary logistic regressions: family history of depression, parenting quality, and closeness to siblings predicting depression by age 50 Marchante

12. Outcome by age 50N% Major depression (3 or more indicators) 2310 Use of mood-altering drugs (rated 3-4) 5022 Alcohol abuse (yes/no)4620 Marchante

14. Family history of depression and poor sibling relationship quality before age 20 resulted in higher odds of MDD ( controlling for quality of parenting in childhood) Family history of depression and poorer sibling relationships uniquely associated with more use of mood-altering drugs Question: Other control variables to consider?? Marchante

15.  What are some mechanisms through which childhood sibling relationships could affect later depression?  Do you think results would hold up for another cohort today? Why or why not?  How would this look different for a more diverse samples? Marchante

17. Erik Erikson’s Psychological Theory (1963)  Psychodynamic  One of first developmental theorists to argue that personality continues to develop throughout lifespan  Series of crises that need to be resolved; outcome can be either favorable or unfavorable

18. Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (RALS)  Investigation of the Eriksonian model begun in 1960s at Rochester University  Questionnaire measure of psychosocial development administered to 349 students in 1965-1968 classes  1977: F/U + new cohort of undergraduates added  1988-89: F/U + new cohort of undergraduates added  Follow-ups included measures of life events & identity  Limitation of previous studies = use of Repeated Measures ANOVA

19. Aims of Current Investigation  Examine trajectories of change for Eriksonian psychosocial issues  Examine moderators of trajectories  Cohort:  “Leading Edge” Baby Boomers (mean birth year = 1946): expected to have greater difficulty resolving issues of identity and intimacy in college but more stability in midlife  “Trailing Edge” Baby Boomers (mean birth year = 1957): fewer psychosocial issues in college but more in adulthood because may have prematurely foreclosed on issues related to career and family  Gender:  Women higher scores on intimacy vs. isolation and steeper rate of change  Men higher scores on initiative, industry, & identity and steeper change  Education, Occupation, and Long-term Relationships  Participants more successful early in life and who establish a stable family early on will have more favorable resolution of Eriksonian crises

20. Participants & Measures Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD; Constantinople, 1969): Participants rate how characteristic items related to each of the Eriksonian issues is of them on 7-point Likert scale Demographic Information: major family life events, educational attainment, occupational prestige, long-term relationship status, parental status Focused on status in early adulthood (age 31)

21. Analytic Strategy  HLM  Fit growth curve models for each dimension of psychosocial development  Baseline Models: Intercept and slope of each scale over study  Addition of Quadratic term  Addition of cohort and demographic variables to examine predictors of level and rate of change over time

22. Results

23. Gender Moderation of Growth Curves  Intercept: Women had higher Intimacy scores  Slope:  Men = consistent steady rise (linear change)  Women = decelerating increase with peak in 40s

24. Education x Cohort  Initiative Model-fitted trajectories for initiative scores by education at age 31 and cohort. Younger cohort: High education began with higher initiative; but declines slightly; Low education slight increase through 30s then slight downward. older cohort: No clear difference for education

25. Gender x Cohort x Occupational prestige  Industry Men Women

26. Cohort x Long term relationship  Intimacy Committed relationship (especially younger cohort) show elevated trajectory, while not committed relationship show low intimacy and then slow increase

27. Cohort x Parenting (at 31)  Generativity 1946 cohort parents decline; 1957 cohort parents increase. 1946 nonparents increase as well.

28. Conclusions & Questions to Consider  The authors state that results support the conclusion that personality continues to develop through midlife—do you agree?  What aspects of personality are being measured here?  Do you think other aspects of personality change?  Authors argue that results “support the idea that individuals can overcome early psychosocial deficits to catch up with... initially more disadvantaged peers”  Do you think this pattern would continue to hold up in later cohorts (e.g., cohorts attending college in late 90s, 2000s, etc.)?

29. (Whitbourne et al., 2009) Growth Curves: Inventory of Psychosocial Development Scales

30.  Potential for change in personality development over life course  Even in characteristics originally hypothesized to form in childhood ▪ Trust, autonomy, initiative  Pattern of change depends on blend of individual characteristics and social contextual factors (cohort effects)  Several examples of “catching up” where low initial levels associated with higher final levels (i.e., intimacy)

31. Emotion Regulation in Older Age Heather L. Urry and James J. Gross R. Bernstein

32. Older age is associated with losses in several domains: Physical Cognitive Social Yet, studies show older adults experience higher levels of well- being compared to younger adults (until very late in life) R. Bernstein

33. Losses experienced by older adults do not lead to lower levels of well-being Does not explain increases in positive affect Reduced amygdala activation leads to reduced experience of negative emotion Inconsistent as reduced amygdala activation should also lead to reduced experience of positive emotion As people age, they get better at regulating their emotions R. Bernstein

34. Situation Selection – choosing the situations one will encounter on the basis of the emotions that these situations are likely to produce Situation Modification – changing a situation one is in so as to influence one’s emotional state Attentional Deployment – paying attention to certain aspects of the situation or thinking of something else entirely Cognitive Change – reappraising the situation so as to change its meaning in a way that alters the resultant emotional response Response Modulation – directly changing feelings, behavior, and physiology after the multisystem response is already under way R. Bernstein

35. Older adults are more effective at situational selection and attentional deployment Older adults report being better at controlling their emotions relative to younger adults Older adults construct smaller, but closer social networks Younger adults are more successful using cognitive reappraisal Older adults are less successful as using detached reappraisal, but more successful at using positive reappraisal, compared to younger adults Younger adults and older adults are similarly successful at reducing outward expressions of emotion (response modulation) R. Bernstein

36. SOC-ER Framework People select and optimize particular emotion regulation strategies as a reflection of available resources The size of the oval indicates how much of the resource is available The size of the text indicates the degree of success/use of the emotion regulation process R. Bernstein

38. Identify the resources that predict the types of emotion regulation processes people use, the frequency with which they use them, and the extent to which their use successfully modifies emotional response Test whether the frequency and/or success of emotion regulation processes mediate the association between age and levels of hedonic well-being Develop treatment to improve emotional well-being for older adults who are NOT successfully using emotional regulation Use the SOC-ER framework to understand differences in emotional regulation across the developmental framework and between individuals within a given group R. Bernstein

39. Is mapping out a person/group’s emotional regulation framework a useful application of the SOC-ER framework? How does it improve our understanding and ability to treat? Is it possible to use the SOC-ER framework and apply it to any of our own research in a useful way? R. Bernstein

40.  Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies show that aging is associated with self-reported lower levels of negative affect and higher levels of positive affect  Why???  Are age-related declines as upsetting as we imagine?  Reduced amygdala sensitivity/activation with age (Cacioppo et al., in press)  Aging associated with improved emotion regulation (e.g., Carstensen)

41.  Development is pervasive....  Importance of considering developmental stage and history at any point in the lifespan (i.e., onset of psychopathology; chronic illness management)  Development is adaptive….  Drive towards efficiency and adaptability to your own conditions ▪ “orderly” development (from generalized to specialized) ▪ Many examples of resilience ▪ Turning points ▪ Second chance opportunities  Innate behaviors that are adaptive ▪ Attachment behaviors ▪ Parent-ese language

42. Attachment overview

43. Measuring Attachment  Ainsworth’s (1978) Strange Situation  Seven episodes increasing amount of stress (e.g., unfamiliar environment, unfamiliar adult, brief separation from parent)  Of interest is how attachment behaviors are organized around parent  Attachment classification based primarily on reunion behaviors See example at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DH1m_ZMO7GU

44. 44 Overall strategy  A – Avoidant  Avoid caregiver  B – Secure  Seek and be comforted by caregiver  C – Resistant  Seek caregiving without surcease  D – Disorganized  Lack a coherent strategy

45. Attachment Classifications  Secure Attachment (Type B; 65% in NA)   Ambivalent/Insecure-Resistant (Type C, 15% in NA)   Insecure/Avoidant (Type A, 20% in NA)   Disorganized (Type D, very rare) 

46. Basis for Individual Differences?  Sensitive/responsive caregiving  Nurturant  Attentive  Nonrestrictive  Synchronous  Predictable

47. Predictive Validity of Attachment Styles in Infancy  Secure attachment in infancy associated with a variety of positive developmental outcomes including:   Why?  What are potential mechanisms?

48. Insecure & disorganized  risk of externalizing problems  Disorganized at elevated risk, weaker effects for avoidance & resistance  Meta-analysis, 69 samples (5,947).  overall d = 0.31 (95% CI: 0.23, 0.40)  Larger effects for boys, clinical samples, observation-based outcome assessments, attachment assessments other than the Strange Situation.  Fearon, R. P., M. J. Bakermans-Kranenburg, et al. (2010). "The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children s externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study." Child Development 81(2): 435-456. Messinger48

49. Nonsecure  internalizing/externalizing Messinger49 Disorganized  externalizing (Groh, Roisman, van Ijzendoorn, Bakermans- Kranenburg, & Fearon, 2012)Groh, Roisman, van Ijzendoorn, Bakermans- Kranenburg, & Fearon, 2012 Based on 42 independent samples (N = 4,614),

50. Messinger50  Meta-analysis of 9 studies (k=9, n=548) using four major categories  Secure versus insecure, 74%  Four-way agreement, 63%  Prebirth AAI show 65% four-way agreement  Which parent category is not so strong a predictor of infant category?

51. Messinger51  Interview a partner about one attachment figure focusing on questions 2 through 4  Each person analyzes their own responses  no comments form partner  Only share what you want to share

52. Messinger52 Adult Attachment Interview

53. Messinger53  Scales associated with autonomous category  coherence, metacognitive monitoring  Scales associated with dismissing category  Idealization of attachment figures, insistence on lack of memory for childhood, dismissal of attachment-related experience/relationships  Scales associated with preoccupied category  anger expressed toward attachment figure, passivity/vagueness in discourse

54. Messinger54  Autonomous  Coherent narrative  Dismissing  Generalized normalizing without specific examples  Preoccupied  Long, entangled narratives  Unresolved  Lapses in reasoning  Secure -  Soothed by parent  Avoidant  Does not make contact with parent or express attachment needs  Resistant  Not comforted by parent  Disorganized  No coherent strategy