1. Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science

2. Unit Overview The Need for Psychological Science
How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?
Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology
Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.

3. reaction time activity
Seniors vs. Freshmen
reaction time activity
quiz

4. The Need for Psychology Science

5. Assign LO’s

6. Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias
“I knew it all along”
Ex. 1: Iraq war – “Everyone knew there were no WMD’s.”
Ex. 2: Favre’s exit was good for GB.

7. Overconfidence Overconfidence, p. 21
Together with hindsight bias, can lead to overestimate our intuition

8. Handout 2-2
Read the statement.
Mark your choice.

9. The Scientific Attitude
LO #2
Three main components, p. 22
Curiosity (“why ?”)
Skepticism (“but . . .”)
Open-minded humility (“okay then”)

10. Critical Thinking Critical Thinking, p. 24 “Smart thinking”
Four elements
Examines assumptions
Discerns hidden values
Evaluates evidence
Assesses conclusions

11. How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?

12. The Scientific Method, p. 25
LO #3
Theory
“mere hunch”
Hypothesis
Can be confirmed or refuted
Paper ball experiment
Operational Definition (be clear!)
Replication (repeat)

17. The Scientific Method A good theory is useful if it . . .
effectively organizes a range of self-reports and observations
implies clear predictions that anyone can use to check the theory

18. Three Means to Test a Hypothesis
LO #4
Descriptive methods (three), p. 26
case studies
surveys
naturalistic observations
Correlational methods
Experimental methods

19. Description The Case Study
Suggest directions for further study
Cannot discern general truths
Genie video

20. Description The Survey
Survey, p. 27
Looks at many cases at once
Effect of wording
Random sampling
Representative sample
Exercise: Survey Wording (Handout 2-5, p. 13)

21. Description The Survey
Sampling
Population
Random Sample

22. Description Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic Observation, p. 28
Describes behavior
Does not explain behavior

23. Correlation, p. 31 Correlation (correlation coefficient)
LO #5
Correlation (correlation coefficient)
How well does A predict B
Positive versus negative correlation
Strength of the correlation
-1.0 to +1.0
Scatterplot

24. Positive, Negative or Neutral Correlation? Smoking and health problems
Smoking and money

25. Correlation

26. Correlation

27. Correlation

28. Correlation Correlation and Causation
Correlation helps predict
Does NOT imply cause and effect

33. Correlation Illusory Correlations
LO #6
Illusory Correlation, p. 32
Perceived non-existent correlation
A random coincidence
Figure 2.5, p. 25

34. Experimentation , p. 34 Experiment Can isolate cause and effect
LO #7
Experiment
Can isolate cause and effect
Control of factors
Manipulation of the factor(s) of interest
Hold constant (“controlling”) factors

35. Experimentation Random Assignment
Eliminates alternative explanations
Different from random sample

36. Experimentation Random Assignment
Blind (uninformed)
Single-Blind Procedure
Double-Blind Procedure
Placebo Effect

37. Experimentation Random Assignment
Groups
Experimental Group
Receives the treatment (independent variable)
Control Group
Does not receive the treatment

38. Experimentation Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent Variable (IV)
What is being controlled
Confounding variable
Note the effect of random assignment on confounding variables
Dependent Variable (DV)
What is being measured
(paper ball)

39. Video: Does Self-Confidence Intimidate Others. Vol
Video: Does Self-Confidence Intimidate Others? Vol. 2, DVD1 (Clip 101, 3:25)

40. Experiments
For each hypothesis, consider how you could design a study that would test it, then in the experiment that’s given, identify the independent and dependent variables.
For each of these experiments you may choose to push students a little further by asking them to identify the experimental and control conditions or by asking students to operationally define each independent and dependent variable. 40

41. Experiments
Hypothesis: Taking tests in hot rooms decreases test scores.
Students are randomly assigned to take a test in either a hot room or a comfortable room. Test scores will be compared to see if hot rooms negatively affect test-taking.
What is the independent variable?
Students
Room temperature
Test scores
Tests
What is the dependent variable?
Students
Hot room
Comfortable room
Test scores
Students frequently try to make the participants in studies the independent or dependent variable. 41

42. Experiments
Hypothesis: Newborns gaze longer at a drawing of a face-like image than at a bull’s-eye pattern.
Newborns are shown, in random order, the stimuli: A face-like image, a bull’s-eye pattern, and a blank screen. Each newborn is timed to see how long they look at each.
What is the independent variable?
Random order
Length of gaze
The stimuli
Newborns
What is the dependent variable?
Newborns
Length of gaze
Facelike image and bull’s-eye pattern
All of the stimuli
This hypothesis was taken from the chapter 5 fact or falsehood handout. For this experiment, ask students why the images need to be presented in random order. 42

43. Experimental Design
Figure 2.7, p. 36

44. Experimental Design
Figure 2.7, p. 36

45. Experimental Design
Figure 2.7, p. 36

46. Experimental Design
Figure 2.7, p. 36

47. Comparing Research Methods
Table 2.3, p. 36

48. Comparing Research Methods
Table 2.3, p. 36

49. Comparing Research Methods
Table 2.3, p. 36

50. Comparing Research Methods
Table 2.3, p. 36

51. Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life

52. Describing Data Measures of Central Tendency
LO #8
Mode (occurs the most)
Mean (arithmetic average)
Median (middle score)

53. Describing Data Measures of Variability
Range
Standard Deviation

54. Describing Data Measures of Variability
Normal Curve (bell shaped)

55. Making Inferences When Is a Difference Significant?
LO #9
Statistical significance
The averages are reliable
The differences between averages are relatively large
Does imply the importance of the results

56. Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology

57. Psychology Applied
LO #10
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
The principles - not the research findings - help explain behavior

58. Psychology Applied Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Influence of culture on behavior
Gender
More similarities than differences

59. Ethics in Research Ethics in animal research
LO #12
Ethics in animal research
Reasons for using animals in research
Safeguards for animal use

60. Video: Ethics in Animal Research: The Sad Case of Booee the Chimp Vol
Video: Ethics in Animal Research: The Sad Case of Booee the Chimp Vol. 2, DVD1 (Clip 102, 5:00 min.)

61. Ethics in Research Ethics in human research Informed consent
LO #13
Ethics in human research
Informed consent
Protect from harm and discomfort
Maintain confidentiality
Debriefing

62. Video: The Standard Prison Study: The Power of the Situation Vol
Video: The Standard Prison Study: The Power of the Situation Vol. 1, DVD2, Social Psychology (Clip 1, 14:00 min.)

63. Research Ethics The following are descriptions of actual studies.
Do you think they were ethical?
Why or why not?
APA’s ethical guidelines are available on the APA website. 63

64. Research Ethics
Men using a public restroom are observed surreptitiously by a researcher hidden in a toilet stall, who records the time they take to urinate.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Middlemist, R.D. , Knowles, E. S. &Matter, C. F  Personal space invasions in the lavatory:  Suggestive evidence for arousal.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 64

65. Research Ethics
A researcher pretends to be a lookout for gay men having sex in a public restroom. On the basis of the men’s car license plates, the researcher tracks down the participants through the Department of Motor Vehicles. Then, under the guise of another study, he interviews them in their homes.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Humphreys, L. (1975). Tearoom trade: Impersonal sex in public places. New York: Aldine. 65

66. Research Ethics
Researchers covertly film people who strip the parts from seemingly abandoned cars.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Zimbardo, P. G. (1970). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In W. J. Arnold & D. Levine (Eds.), 1969 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp ). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. 66

67. Research Ethics
Participants waiting for an experiment are videotaped without their prior knowledge or consent. However, they are given the option of erasing the
tapes if they do not want their tapes to be used for research purposes.
Was this study an ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Ickes, W. (1982). A basic paradigm for the study of personality, roles, and social behavior. In W. Ickes and E.S. Knowles (Eds.), Personality, roles, and social behavior (pp ). New York: Springer-Verlag. 67

68. Research Ethics
Researchers stage a shoplifting episode in a drugstore, and shoppers’ reactions are observed.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Gelfand, D. M., Hartmann, D. P., Walder, P., & Page, B. (1973). Who reports shoplifters? A field-experimental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 68

69. Research Ethics
Researchers hide under dormitory beds and eavesdrop on students’ conversations.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Henle. M., & Hubbell, MR (1938)." Egocentricity“ in adult conversation. Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 69

70. Research Ethics
Researchers embarrass participants by asking them to sing “Feelings”.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
Leary, M. R., Landel, J. L., & Patton, K. M. (1996). The motivated expression of embarrassment following a self-presentational predicament. Journal of Personality, 64, 70

71. Research Ethics
Researchers approach members of the opposite sex on a university campus and ask them to have sex.
Was this study ethical?
A B C D E
Not Sure
Yes
Definitely
Not No
After students click in their answers, you may want to have them discuss this study as a class or in small groups. Start a new question and ask students to click in again after their discussion. Display both graphs on the screen. Did students change their views after discussion? Why or why not?
 Clark, R. D., III & Hatfield, E. (1989).  Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers.  Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 71

72. LO #14

73. Teacher Information Types of Files Animation
This presentation has been saved as a “basic” Powerpoint file. While this file format placed a few limitations on the presentation, it insured the file would be compatible with the many versions of Powerpoint teachers use. To add functionality to the presentation, teachers may want to save the file for their specific version of Powerpoint.
Animation
Once again, to insure compatibility with all versions of Powerpoint, none of the slides are animated. To increase student interest, it is suggested teachers animate the slides wherever possible.
Adding slides to this presentation
Teachers are encouraged to adapt this presentation to their personal teaching style. To help keep a sense of continuity, blank slides which can be copied and pasted to a specific location in the presentation follow this “Teacher Information” section.

74. Teacher Information
Hyperlink Slides - This presentation contain two types of hyperlinks. Hyperlinks can be identified by the text being underlined and a different color (usually purple).
Unit subsections hyperlinks: Immediately after the unit title slide, a page (slide #3) can be found listing all of the unit’s subsections. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of these hyperlinks will take the user directly to the beginning of that subsection. This allows teachers quick access to each subsection.
Bold print term hyperlinks: Every bold print term from the unit is included in this presentation as a hyperlink. While in slide show mode, clicking on any of the hyperlinks will take the user to a slide containing the formal definition of the term. Clicking on the “arrow” in the bottom left corner of the definition slide will take the user back to the original point in the presentation.
These hyperlinks were included for teachers who want students to see or copy down the exact definition as stated in the text. Most teachers prefer the definitions not be included to prevent students from only “copying down what is on the screen” and not actively listening to the presentation.
For teachers who continually use the Bold Print Term Hyperlinks option, please contact the author using the address on the next slide to learn a technique to expedite the returning to the original point in the presentation.

75. Teacher Information Continuity slides
Throughout this presentation there are slides, usually of graphics or tables, that build on one another. These are included for three purposes.
By presenting information in small chunks, students will find it easier to process and remember the concepts.
By continually changing slides, students will stay interested in the presentation.
To facilitate class discussion and critical thinking. Students should be encouraged to think about “what might come next” in the series of slides.
Please feel free to contact me at with any questions, concerns, suggestions, etc. regarding these presentations.
Kent Korek
Germantown High School
Germantown, WI 53022

76. Division title (green print) subdivision title (blue print)
xxx

77. Division title (green print) subdivision title (blue print)
Use this slide to add a table, chart, clip art, picture, diagram, or video clip. Delete this box when finished

78. Definition Slide
= add definition here

79. Definition Slides

80. Hindsight Bias
= the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Also known as the “I knew it all along” phenomenon.

81. Critical Thinking
= thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

82. Theory
= an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

83. Hypothesis
= a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

84. Operational Definition
= a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
i.e. Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

85. Replication
= repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

86. Case Study
= an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

87. Survey
= a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

88. Population
= all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
Note: Except for national studies, this does NOT refer to a country’s whole population.

89. Random Sample
= a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

90. Naturalistic Observation
= observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

91. Correlation
= a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

92. Correlation Coefficient
= a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1).

93. Scatterplot
= a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

94. Illusory Correlation
= the perception of a relationship where none exists.

95. Experiment
= a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

96. Random Assigment
= assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

97. Double-Blind Procedure
= an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

98. Placebo Effect
= experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

99. Experimental Group
= in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

100. Control Group
= in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment.

101. Independent Variable
= the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. * “what is controlled”

102. Confounding Variable
= a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

103. Dependent Variable
= the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. * “what is measured”

104. Mode
= the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

105. Mean
= the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

106. Median
= the middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below it.

107. Range
= the difference between the highest and lowest score in a distribution.

108. Standard Deviation
= a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

109. Normal Curve
= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scored fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

110. Statistical Significance
= a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

111. Culture
= the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

112. Informed Consent
= an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

113. Debriefing
= the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.