1. Classroom Assessment A Practical Guide for Educators by Craig A
Classroom Assessment A Practical Guide for Educators by Craig A. Mertler
Chapter 2
Teaching and Assessment:
The Instructional Process

2. Introduction Assessment is an integral part of teaching.
Important relationships exist between assessment and various aspects of teaching.
Understanding how assessment relates to these other aspects of teaching is central to understanding assessment.

3. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Time-Restricted Model”
prevalent at the high school and college levels
assessment occurs only following completion of instruction
Begin here 

4. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Time-Restricted Model” (continued)
new material is introduced; teacher demonstrates examples of concepts or procedures; students complete homework activities; next lesson begins with review of previous day’s concepts; new material is then presented; process continues until “unit” is complete, at which time assessment is administered
assumption that instruction is unidirectional…
Teacher Students

5. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Time-Restricted Model” (continued)
advantage:
cost-effective (in terms of time allotted to assessments)
limitations:
assessments are difficult for students since they cover large amounts of material
preparation for these assessments often encourages memorization
no (or limited) opportunities for reteaching material to those experiencing difficulty

6. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Continuous Feedback Model”
based on the principle that most students could master material if provided with additional time to learn
both formative and summative decision making is incorporated in the model
Formal assessment and summative evaluation occur
Teacher provides instruction
Informal assessment occurs
Discussion/feedback
(formative evaluation)
Further instruction
Additional informal assessment
Discussion/
feedback
[Instruction—informal assessment—evaluation cycle
continues]
Begin here 

7. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Continuous Feedback Model” (continued)
builds on Time-Restricted Model; additional informal assessments and formative evaluation is incorporated
these additional assessments are not included in students’ grades; purpose is to identify errors and misunderstandings
numerous assessments are necessary; these require much planning and forethought on the part of teachers
teachers must be flexible and must build in time for reteaching

8. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Continuous Feedback Model” (continued)
advantages:
potential for noticeable gains in student achievement
potential for reduction in test (assessment) anxiety
helps students learn more and better; discourages memorization
limitations:
time must be spent developing assessment and intervention strategies
some students may not be ready to move on when others are

9. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Integrated Assessment Model”
based on the principle that instruction should focus on meaningful learning and thinking
students are taught how to think and apply what they have learned

10. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Integrated Assessment Model” (continued)
defines a different role for the teacher—a guide for students and a facilitator of learning
necessitates a reduction in large-group instruction
also defines different roles for the students—greater collaborative work (in pairs or small groups)
students also assume greater responsibility for their own learning and application of that learning
assessment also changes—focus is now on application and problem solving
assessment is an ongoing entity throughout the entire process

11. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching
The “Integrated Assessment Model” (continued)
advantages:
increased potential for gains in student achievement, solidified understanding, etc.
student learning becomes more meaningful
limitations:
requires development of new skills on the part of teachers
inservice training is often necessary

12. Delivering instruction Assessing instruction
The Instructional Process
The Instructional Process
consists of three basic stages, which are integrated throughout the entire process:
planning for instruction
delivering instruction
assessing instruction
Planning instruction
Delivering instruction
Assessing instruction

13. The Instructional Process
The Instructional Process (continued)
assessment and decision making are required at each step of the process, as they guide actions taken at the other steps
All three components in The Instructional Process must be parallel with one another.

14. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction
numerous decisions must be made prior to actual instruction (textbook, content, supplements, pace of instruction, types of assessments, etc.)
instruction is not a spontaneous activity
good preparation helps teachers feel comfortable with the material, as well as with other tasks of teaching
provides a sense of ownership over the act of teaching

15. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Unit plan:
most basic, essential type of planning
consists of an outline or overview of a large section of content material (more specific planning follows in the form of weekly and daily lesson plans)
reduces uncertainty and anxiety
provides opportunities for teachers to review material and activities prior to instruction
provides framework to guide actual instruction

16. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Lesson plan:
weekly lesson plan—provides an overview of instruction for each day in a given subject, course, or class period; includes instructional objectives
daily lesson plan—guides the specifics of actual instruction; permits teachers to visualize themselves actually teaching the plans they are attempting to develop, anticipates any problems, and addresses them prior to delivering instruction

17. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Guidelines for developing lesson plans:
There is no single way (i.e., one “correct” format) to write a lesson plan.
Even though they are detailed, lesson plans are not written in stone and do allow for flexibility.
Even if you believe that you can remember what you are going to teach, lesson plans should be an integral part of the teaching process for every teacher.
Formal lesson planning does not stifle the creative process.
Sample lesson plans…

18. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Curriculum guides:
provide guidance to teachers with respect to “scope and sequence,” instructional activities, and expected levels of student achievement
developed at the state or district level
also known as curriculum frameworks or courses of study

19. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Instructional objectives: statements that clearly describe what students are expected to learn or be able to do following instruction.
extremely important component of lesson plans
three domains of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives:
cognitive domain
affective domain
psychomotor domain

20. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Cognitive domain: six levels that represent a hierarchy of thinking skills.
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
higher-level thinking skills
lower-level thinking skills

21. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Writing instructional objectives
purpose is to focus instruction on behaviors that students should be able to exhibit or perform (objective begins with a stem such as “The student will…” or “The learner can…”)
must focus on observable and measurable student characteristics or behaviors (think, know, and understand are not observable)

22. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Writing instructional objectives (continued)
three essential components:
the stem
action verb
specific content, skill, or behavior
The student will compare and contrast the circulatory system of vertebrates to that of invertebrates.

23. The Instructional Process
Planning Instruction (continued)
Teacher-made vs. publisher-developed materials
many educational resources available (textbooks, Internet, teacher’s guides, supplemental materials, etc.)
do not rely solely on these materials
may result in a misalignment between planning, delivering, and assessing instruction

24. The Instructional Process
Delivering Instruction
Two important tasks for teachers once instruction has begun:
deliver the instruction as planned
constantly assess and evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction; alter when necessary

25. The Instructional Process
Assessing Instruction
Formative evaluations
occur during instruction
typically result from informal assessments (more spontaneous)
purpose is to determine what adjustments need to be made to instruction in order to be more effective

26. The Instructional Process
Assessing Instruction (continued)
Summative evaluations
occur after instruction
result from more formal assessments (planned in advance of their administration)
results are typically used to assign grades to student performance
can also be used as a final measure of overall effectiveness of instruction