1. Chapter One Highlights Reading in Perspective from the book An Essential History of Current Reading Practices Presented by: Susan Martin

2. The Era of Conditioned Learning 1650-1965 Post WWII brought changes in teaching reading due to a large influx of baby boomers By sheer volume, larger amounts of students brought with it more varied reading problems/challenges The Space Race- America fears failure Popularity of Flesch’s book Why Johnny Can’t Read – touted phonics over look-say method of reading Phonics soared in popularity

3. The Era of Conditioned Reading 1950-1965 Reading became linked to behaviorism Researchers began to “deconstruct” reading into specific elements and sequences Reading problems were labeled “deficiencies” and “diagnosed” like a physical illness Whole Word vs. Phonics debates began Some researchers began to call for balance in reading instruction Reading problems persisted despite heavy phonics instruction

4. The Era of Natural Learning 1966-1975 Cognitivism began began to rise as the dominant theory of learning Interest increased in how the human mind worked Large scale studies- such as the First Grade Reading Studies by Bond & Dykstra in 1967 began to influence approaches in reading instruction Linguists & psycholinguists began to influence the field of reading instruction The belief that reading was linked to an innate capacity for language learning (linguistic)

5. The Era of Natural Learning 1966-1975 Also emerging was the belief in a natural communicative power between reader and text that was aesthetic and holistic in nature (psycholinguistic) These perspectives provided a more “natural” view of reading than the previous era Reading became viewed as a process of meaningful use rather than mindless repetition Diagnosis of reading problems moved from correcting underlying problems (“deficiencies”) to understanding how readers interpreted alternative interpretations of written text

6. The Era of Information Processing 1976-1985 Growing research and attention was being focused on the workings of the human mind Federal funding of reading research began to increase Thus the areas of reading research and interest in how the mind works merged to produce research on how reading occurs in the mind Researchers roots were in cognitive psychology Learning as “natural” was replaced with a computer replica of the brain An Important legacy of this era was findings on background knowledge and how it affects comprehension, interpretation and recall of material

7. The Era of Information Processing 1976-1985 Focus on text structures and strategies to aid comprehension evolved in this era Schema Theory was introduced by Rumelhart (1980) and is still a major contribution to the field Critics of this era still held to the belief that reading was “natural & holistic” Other critics worried that reading was becoming viewed as only “information getting” and fought for the recognition of the aesthetic value of reading for pleasure The link between reading and writing began to be explored in earnest

8. The Era of Sociocultural Learning 1986-1995 A constructivist approach to reading began to replace the computer model of learning The works of Vygotsky, Lave and others began to gain popularity This lead to increase in ethnological and qualitative studies, as well as studies on literacy practices in natural settings A mounting distrust for formal, individual knowledge began to take hold The process of learning began to appear to matter the most The word knowledge took on a new meaning- it was now believed that knowledge did not always mean learning Through research on persuasion, it was found that strong opinions/beliefs based on little knowledge made reader’s resistant to the author’s message.

9. The Era of Sociocultural Learning 1986-1995 Also, awareness of information conflicts gained inside and outside of school came to light More attention to understanding different social and cultural groups began be a focus Literacy practices within specific content areas, such as science and math became a research focus There was a general consensus in the field that contextual and social forces mattered greatly in reading There were a few in the field that also believed the concept of knowledge or individual knowledge had no place in literacy. It was now believed that misinformation or misunderstanding could actually impede learning

10. The Era of Engaged Learning 1996- present A heightened awareness of hypermedia and classroom discourse have transformed conceptions of text, the reader, and learning with and from texts Reading no longer linear; part of daily life in all forms of technology Reading viewed as more interactive than ever and includes discussions on traditional and alternative forms of text Motivation research began to infiltrate reading in the late 1990’s and brought consideration of the learner’s interests and goals which eventually came to the forefront of the learning experience Reading moved from aesthetic responses to literature to “engaged” learning; the student was reconceptionalized as an “engaged learner”

11. The Era of Engaged Learning 1996- present Researchers can no longer ignore that reading relates to all learners of differing ages and abilities, not just struggling readers Research began to look at reading as a lifelong experiences that continues to change and develop over a lifetime Learning with and learning in reading became a focus that had been overlooked in the past An undercurrent of identifying, teaching and remediating underlying reading sub-skills has emerged in recent years and is a product of high-stakes testing The undercurrent is fueled by influential researchers in the field, especially those interested in special education and struggling readers

12. Historical Lessons Learned… A Final Thought The character of reading research is fluid and shaped by those in the community at the time. Prevailing trends within reading research reflect prevailing trends outside the field. Certain fundamental issues occur and reoccur across the history of reading research and practice. The eras of reading research reveal a changing emphasis on physiological, psychological and social variables. The cycle of changes observed in the history of reading research suggest developmental maturation in the field.

13. Reference Fresch, M. (2008). An essential history of current reading practices. (pp. 12-32). Newark: International Reading Association.