1. EDN 203 Human Development Theory
Chapter 2
Cognitive & Linguistic Development

2. What Is Development?
Development: Changes occurring throughout the lifespan that are orderly and adaptive
Can be physical, cognitive, or social in nature
An important aspect of development is maturation, the genetically programmed aspects of development.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

3. Basic Principles of Human Development
Development proceeds in a somewhat orderly and predictable pattern.
Developmental milestones
Different children develop at different rates.
Development occurs via both spurts and plateaus.
Development is continually affected by both nature and nurture.
Temperaments and sensitive periods
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

4. Role of the Brain in Cognitive Development
Learning involves changes in neurons and synapses.
Developmental changes in the brain enable increasingly complex and efficient thought.
The brain remains adaptable throughout life.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

5. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget was a Swiss psychologist with a background in biology.
He noticed age-related similarities in how children attempted to solve certain tasks.
He saw that within specific age ranges there were specific types of deficits and specific types of strengths in problem-solving skills.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

6. Basic Assumptions of Piaget’s Theory
Children are active and motivated learners.
Children construct knowledge from their experiences.
Children learn through assimilation and accommodation.
Interaction with one’s physical and social environments is essential for cognitive development.
The process of equilibration promotes progression toward increasingly complex thought.
Cognitive development is stage-like in nature.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

7. Assimilation and Accommodation
Assimilation entails dealing with a new object or event in a way that is consistent with a currently existing scheme.
Accommodation occurs when new information doesn’t fit into existing schemes; the schemes must be adjusted or accommodated.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

8. Equilibration
Equilibration is the movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium, a process that promotes development of more complex thought and understanding.
Students move back and forth between a state of balance and imbalance.
It is the desire for balance that forces students to construct new schemes or accommodate existing schemes.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

9. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget proposed that children move through four stages.
Periods of time are consistent in age and developmental sequence.
Age ranges are averages.
Some children are in transition from one stage to the next.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

10. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 Years)
Characterized by infants using senses and motor skills to explore world
Begins with reflexes and ends with a complex combination of sensory and motor skill combinations
Major cognitive developmental milestones include object permanence and an understanding of cause-effect relationships
Symbolic thought, the ability to represent and think about external objects and events, emerges toward the end of second year.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

11. Preoperational Stage (2 Years – 6 or 7 Years)
Characterized by the rapid development of language which allows for more social interaction
Limitations of preoperational thought include:
Egocentrism: Inability to view situations from another’s perspective
Lack of conservation: Inability to realize that if nothing is added or taken away, the amount stays the same regardless of alterations in shape or appearance
Transductive reasoning (lack of logic): Inference of a cause-effect relationship simply because two events occur close together in time and space
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

12. Concrete Operations (6 or 7 Years – 11 or 12 Years)
Children begin to think more logically and demonstrate deductive reasoning.
Conservation of liquid is evident by 7; conservation of substance is evident by 8; conservation of area is mastered by 9 or 10.
Children are able to learn classification, seriation, and are able to reverse operations which allows for the teaching of mathematics.
However, children cannot apply newfound logic to non-concrete items (abstract concepts).
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

13. Formal Operations (11 or 12 and Beyond)
Children are now able to reason logically about abstract and hypothetical ideas.
Can formulate and test multiple hypothesis
Limitations include excessive idealism.
May reflect formal operational egocentrism, the inability to separate one’s own logical abstractions from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

14. Current Perspectives on Piaget’s Theory
Sequence of the stages is supported, but the ages coinciding with each stage is debated.
Piaget may have underestimated young children’s cognitive capabilities, but overestimated those of adolescents.
Piaget may have overemphasized the importance of interaction with the physical environment.
Social interaction may be more influential than realized.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

15. Applying Piaget’s Theory
Provide hands-on experience with physical objects, particularly at the elementary level
When students show signs of egocentric thought, express confusion or explain that others think differently
Ask students to explain their reasoning and challenge illogical explanations
Be sure that students have adequate knowledge and skills before moving on to more complex topics and activities
Relate abstract and hypothetical ideas to concrete objects and/or observable events
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

16. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s ideas are evident in our current views of child development, learning, and instructional practice.
His theory is sometimes referred to as the sociocultural perspective because of its emphasis on the impact of society and culture on cognitive development.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

17. Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions
Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adults convey to children ways in which their culture interprets and responds to the world.
Thought and language become increasingly interdependent in the first few years of life.
Complex mental processes begin as social activities and then progress to internalized processes.
Cognitive tools
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

18. Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions
Children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted.
Actual developmental level vs. level of potential development
Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.
Zone of proximal development
Play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

19. The Zone of Proximal Development
The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently
Students working on challenging tasks in collaboration with a more competent partner
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

20. Current Perspectives on Vygotsky’s Theory
Educators embrace Vygotsky’s ideas on the role of culture in cognitive development.
Research supports Vygotsky’s beliefs about the importance of language in cognitive development.
Vygotsky’s theory introduces the well-supported concepts of mediated learning, scaffolding, and cognitive tools.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

21. Applying Vygotsky’s Theory
Encourage students to talk themselves through difficult tasks
Provide cognitive tools that students can use to make difficult tasks easier
Present some tasks that students can perform successfully only with assistance
Provide sufficient scaffolding to enable students to attempt to perform challenging tasks
Have students work in small groups on complex tasks
Provide opportunities to engage in adult-like activities
Give young children time to practice adult roles and behaviors through play
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

22. Linguistic Development
Humans are born with a predisposition to learn language
Developmental pattern of language development
Most first words occur around the 1st birthday.
Sentences are usually evident by age 2 and become more complex during the preschool years.
By age 5 or 6 most children’s language skills are almost completely adult-like
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

23. Development of Vocabulary
Children learn semantics, the meanings of words and word combinations, through direct vocabulary instruction at school and by inferring meaning from the contexts in which they hear the words.
Common errors include undergeneralization and overgeneralization.
Teachers can promote semantic development by having students define new vocabulary in their own words.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

24. Development of Syntax
Syntax is the set of rules that one uses to put words together into sentences (often unconsciously).
Syntax becomes more complex during the later elementary years.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

25. Development of Listening Comprehension
During later elementary school, children learn that good listening requires understanding.
Listening comprehension is influenced by context.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

26. Development of Oral Communication Skills
Pragmatics is knowledge about culture-specific social conventions guiding verbal interactions.
Both correct pronunciation and pragmatics are necessary oral communication skills.
Pragmatics may not be mastered until high school or beyond.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

27. Development of Metalinguistic Awareness
Metalinguistic awareness is the extent to which one can think about the nature of language.
It involves understanding the literal and nonliteral meanings of words.
It emerges slowly over time.
High school work enhances metalinguistic awareness via the study of literature and second languages.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

28. Learning a Second Language
Early exposure to a second language may be important for mastering pronunciation and complex grammatical constructions.
Bilingualism is correlated with increased cognitive abilities.
It results in superior problem-solving skills, creativity, and cognitive flexibility.
Metalinguistic awareness may happen at an earlier age, and, therefore, bilingual students’ syntax may be superior as well.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

29. Bilingual Education vs. Immersion
Students are instructed in academic subjects in their native language while simultaneously being taught to speak and write in the second language.
Immersion
Students hear and speak the second language almost exclusively in the classroom.
Which one is “better?”
There is no clear and easy answer.
Some students benefit from bilingual education, while others from immersion.
It may have to do with the available opportunities to speak the second language.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

30. Considering Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development
The rate of cognitive and linguistic development can vary from child to child.
Cognitive development may differ somewhat depending on the culture.
Students will vary in the size of their vocabulary and knowledge of complex syntactical structures.
Some students will be advanced cognitively while others will not yet have acquired the skills common to their age group.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

31. Addressing the Unique Needs of English Language Learners
Bilingual education programs are more effective than immersion programs.
Transition to instruction only in English should be gradual.
Adequate mastery of English can take five to seven years.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.

32. The Big Picture
Children tend to think in qualitatively different ways at different ages.
Children actively construct their knowledge.
Development builds upon prior acquisitions.
Challenging situations and tasks promote development.
Social interaction is critical for development.
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey All rights reserved.
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition