1. Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research, and Correlational Studies Chapter Four: Nonexperimental Methods I: Descriptive Methods, Qualitative Research, and Correlational Studies

2. Descriptive Methods  Descriptive methods do not involve manipulation of an independent variable.  When we use descriptive methods, we can only speculate about causation that may be involved.

3. Descriptive Methods  Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes Refers to use of data recorded by other individuals for other purposes public health and census datapublic health and census data The General Social Survey is an archival source that can be accessed online The General Social Survey is an archival source that can be accessed online http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/gss/home.htmhttp://www.icpsr.umich.edu/gss/home.htmhttp://www.icpsr.umich.edu/gss/

4. Descriptive Methods  Potential Problems With Archival and Previously Recorded Sources of Data You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating. You will not know exactly who left the data you are investigating. The participants may have been selective in what they chose to write. The participants may have been selective in what they chose to write. This problem is also known as selective deposit. This problem is also known as selective deposit. Archival and previously recorded sources of data may not survive long enough for you to make use of them. Archival and previously recorded sources of data may not survive long enough for you to make use of them.

5. Descriptive Methods  Comparisons with the Experimental Method We are not able to exercise any control with regard to gathering these data and cannot make any statements regarding cause-and-effect. We are not able to exercise any control with regard to gathering these data and cannot make any statements regarding cause-and-effect.

6. Descriptive Methods  Observational Techniques Case Studies Case Studies Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic Observation

7. Descriptive Methods  Case studies  Involves intense observation and recording of behavior of a single (perhaps two) participant(s) over an extended period of time.  There are no guidelines for conducting a case study and the procedures employed, behaviors observed, and reports produced may vary substantially.  Frequently used in clinical settings to help formulate ideas and hypotheses for further research.

8. Descriptive Methods  Naturalistic Observation Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world. Involves seeking answers to research questions by observing behavior in the real world. The first goal of naturalistic observation is to describe behavior as it occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the laboratory. The first goal of naturalistic observation is to describe behavior as it occurs in the natural setting without the artificiality of the laboratory. The second goal of naturalistic observation is to describe the variables that are present and the relations among them. The second goal of naturalistic observation is to describe the variables that are present and the relations among them.

9. Psychological Detective  Why should the researcher be concealed or unobtrusive in a study using naturalistic observation? The reactance or reactivity effect The reactance or reactivity effect Refers to biasing of the participants’ responses because they know they are being observed.Refers to biasing of the participants’ responses because they know they are being observed. The reactivity effect is also known as the Hawthorne effect because of the location of the original study.The reactivity effect is also known as the Hawthorne effect because of the location of the original study.

10. Descriptive Methods  Participant Observation The researcher becomes part of the group being studied. The researcher becomes part of the group being studied. Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group.Often used when the goal of the research project is to learn something about a specific culture or socioeconomic group. Ethnography is a form of participant observation based on the anthropological tradition of research. Ethnography is a form of participant observation based on the anthropological tradition of research. “Observer as participant” refers to a researcher who primarily observes a situation but who interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999).“Observer as participant” refers to a researcher who primarily observes a situation but who interacts with the others (Glesne, 1999). “Participant as observer” refers to the researcher who becomes a part of the culture by working and interacting extensively with the others (Glesne, 1999).“Participant as observer” refers to the researcher who becomes a part of the culture by working and interacting extensively with the others (Glesne, 1999).

11. Psychological Detective  What are the drawbacks and weaknesses of the participant observer technique? An extended period of time may be necessary before the participant observer is accepted as a member of the group that is under study. An extended period of time may be necessary before the participant observer is accepted as a member of the group that is under study. Cannot make cause-and-effect statements. Cannot make cause-and-effect statements.

12. Descriptive Methods  Clinical perspective Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because: Schein (1987) argued convincingly that the clinical perspective or model is not a subcategory of participant observation because:

13. Descriptive Methods  A client typically chooses the clinician, whereas the participant observer chooses the others to be studied.  Unlike participant observers, clinicians cannot be unobtrusive because they have been asked to participate in the situation.  Although the participant observer can remain passive, clinicians must intervene in the situation.  The participant observer’s goal is understanding, whereas the clinician’s goal is helping.  Participant observers validate their findings by replication while clinicians validate their findings by being able to predict the results of a given intervention.

14. Descriptive Methods  Choosing Behaviors and Recording Techniques Time sampling Time sampling Situation sampling Situation sampling

15. Descriptive Methods  Time sampling Involves making observations at different time periods in order to obtain a more representative sampling of the behavior of interest. Involves making observations at different time periods in order to obtain a more representative sampling of the behavior of interest. Selection of time periods may be determined randomly or in a more systematic manner.Selection of time periods may be determined randomly or in a more systematic manner. The use of time sampling may apply to the same or different participants. The use of time sampling may apply to the same or different participants.

16. Descriptive Methods  Situation sampling Involves observing the same behavior in several different situations. This techniques offers the researcher two advantages: Involves observing the same behavior in several different situations. This techniques offers the researcher two advantages: By sampling behavior in several different situations, you are able to determine whether the behavior in question changes as a function of the context in which you observed it.By sampling behavior in several different situations, you are able to determine whether the behavior in question changes as a function of the context in which you observed it. You are likely to observe different participants in the different situations and because different individuals are observed, your ability to generalize any behavioral consistencies across the various situations is increased.You are likely to observe different participants in the different situations and because different individuals are observed, your ability to generalize any behavioral consistencies across the various situations is increased.

17. Descriptive Methods  Deciding how to present the results of your research project. Qualitative presentation of results: Qualitative presentation of results: Report consists of a description of the behavior in question (a narrative record) and the conclusions prompted by this description.Report consists of a description of the behavior in question (a narrative record) and the conclusions prompted by this description. Quantitative or numerical presentation of results: Quantitative or numerical presentation of results: Need to know how behavior under investigation is going to be measured and how these measurements will be analyzed.Need to know how behavior under investigation is going to be measured and how these measurements will be analyzed.

18. Descriptive Methods  Using More than One Observer There are two main reasons for using more than one observer: There are two main reasons for using more than one observer: One observer may miss or overlook a bit of behavior.One observer may miss or overlook a bit of behavior. There may be some disagreement concerning exactly what was seen and how it should be rated or categorized.There may be some disagreement concerning exactly what was seen and how it should be rated or categorized.

19. Descriptive Methods  Using More than One Observer When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to see how well their observations agree. When two individuals observe the same behavior, it is possible to see how well their observations agree. The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver reliability. The extent to which the observers agree is called interobserver reliability. Low interobserver reliability indicates that the observers disagree about the behavior(s) they observed.Low interobserver reliability indicates that the observers disagree about the behavior(s) they observed. High interobserver reliability indicates agreement.High interobserver reliability indicates agreement.

20. Descriptive Methods  Here is the formula for calculating interobserver reliability: # of times observers agree ______________________ X 100 = percent of agreement # of opportunities to agree  85% agreement is generally considered to be an acceptable minimum level for interobserver reliability.

21. Qualitative Research  “is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting” (Creswell, 1994, p. 2).  The qualitative researcher believes that a full description of human behavior includes people’s feelings in addition to what they are doing and how they are doing it.  The qualitative research style is much less formal and impersonal, and the reader of a qualitative research report can expect to find such additions as “definitions that evolved during a study” (Creswell, 1994, p. 7).

22. Qualitative Research  The qualitative researcher is committed to studying particular people in specific settings.  Qualitative researchers prefer to use inductive logic.  Qualitative research begins with guiding hypotheses reflecting a global issue of interest (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).  Qualitative researchers typically analyze their data “simultaneously with data collection, data interpretation, and narrative reporting writing” (Creswell, 1994, p. 153).  Grounded theory is one of the most popular forms of contemporary qualitative research.

23. Qualitative Research  Grounded Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in (based on) reality. The ultimate goal of this approach is to derive theories that are grounded in (based on) reality. Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of research questions. Grounded theory is not advocated for all types of research questions. Knowing the literature too well can hamper the creativity necessary to doing grounded theory research. Knowing the literature too well can hamper the creativity necessary to doing grounded theory research. The heart of the grounded theory approach occurs in its use of coding, which is analogous to data analysis in quantitative approaches. The heart of the grounded theory approach occurs in its use of coding, which is analogous to data analysis in quantitative approaches.

24. Qualitative Research  Types of coding in grounded theory research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990): Open coding: Open coding: The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied.The researcher labels and categorizes the phenomena being studied. Axial coding: Axial coding: Involves finding links between categories and subcategories from open coding.Involves finding links between categories and subcategories from open coding. Selective coding: Selective coding: Entails identifying a core category and relating the subsidiary categories to this core.Entails identifying a core category and relating the subsidiary categories to this core.

25. Qualitative Research  Participatory Action Research (Fine et al, 2003)

26. Qualitative Research  Participatory Action Research (Fine et al, 2003) Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community. Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community.

27. Qualitative Research  Participatory Action Research (Fine et al,2003) Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community. Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community. Typically involves the participants as equal researchers in the study.Typically involves the participants as equal researchers in the study.

28. Qualitative Research  Participatory Action Research (Fine et al, 2003) Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community. Goal of a PAR project is usually to evaluate and understand the impact of some social program on the community. Typically involves the participants as equal researchers in the study.Typically involves the participants as equal researchers in the study. PAR approach can use one or more specific methods to gather information. These may be both quantitative and qualitative.PAR approach can use one or more specific methods to gather information. These may be both quantitative and qualitative.

29. Correlational Studies  A correlational study involves the measurement and determination of the relation between two variables.

30. Correlational Studies  A correlational study involves the measurement and determination of the relation between two variables.  Used when data on two variables are available, but variables only able to be measured, not manipulated.

31. Correlational Studies  A correlational study involves the measurement and determination of the relation between two variables.  Used when data on two variables are available, but variables only able to be measured, not manipulated.  Cannot determine cause-and-effect.

32. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations

33. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations Three basic patterns may emerge: Three basic patterns may emerge: Positive correlationPositive correlation

34. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations Three basic patterns may emerge: Three basic patterns may emerge: Positive correlationPositive correlation As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of 1.A perfect positive correlation has a correlation coefficient of 1.

35. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations Three basic patterns may emerge: Three basic patterns may emerge: Positive correlationPositive correlation As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. Negative correlationNegative correlation

36. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations Three basic patterns may emerge: Three basic patterns may emerge: Positive correlationPositive correlation As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. Negative correlationNegative correlation Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable. Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable. A perfect negative correlation has a correlation coefficient of –1.A perfect negative correlation has a correlation coefficient of –1.

37. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations Three basic patterns may emerge: Three basic patterns may emerge: Positive correlationPositive correlation As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. Negative correlationNegative correlation Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable. Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable. Zero correlationZero correlation

38. Correlational Studies  The Nature of Correlations Three basic patterns may emerge: Three basic patterns may emerge: Positive correlationPositive correlation As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. As one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increase. Negative correlationNegative correlation Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable. Indicates that an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable. Zero correlationZero correlation Indicates a lack of relation between the two variables. Indicates a lack of relation between the two variables. The correlation coefficient for a “zero correlation” is zero (or close to zero).The correlation coefficient for a “zero correlation” is zero (or close to zero).