1. Chapter 4: MOTIVATION THROUGH FEELINGS OF CONTROL
Everything’s under control!

3. Chapter 4: Aims
to develop an understand of intrinsic motivation, including Self-Determination Theory
to understand the construct of locus of control and its application to physical activity
to consider the basic principles of attribution theory and perceptions of control and their application to health and physical activity
to understand the role of beliefs concerning athletic ability in motivation for physical activity

4. Perceptions of Control
Skinner’s model:
agent-means-end model
beliefs associated with the model

5. AGENT
(PERSON)
MEANS
(BEHAVIOUR)
CAPACITY
BELIEFS

6. MEANS
(BEHAVIOUR)
ENDS
(OUTCOMES)
STRATEGY
BELIEFS

7. AGENT
(PERSON)
ENDS
(OUTCOMES)
CONTROL
BELIEFS

8. AGENT-MEANS-ENDS ANALYSIS
[BEHAVIOUR]
CAPACITY
BELIEFS
STRATEGY
BELIEFS
CONTROL
BELIEFS
AGENT
ENDS
[PERSON]
[OUTCOMES]

9. COGNITIVE EVALUATION THEORY

10. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Basic principles 1
The relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was thought to be quite simple - 'more' motivation would result from adding extrinsic to existing intrinsic motivation!
Studies then questioned whether intrinsic motivation could be undermined by the use of extrinsic rewards
CET proposed that variations in individuals' feelings of competence and perceptions of autonomy will produce variations in intrinsic motivation

11. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Basic principles 2
Providing individuals with rewards for their participation in an already interesting activity often leads to a decrease in intrinsic motivation
This is called the ‘overjustification effect’
this is due to a shift in perceived locus of causality (PLOC)
individuals who have an internal PLOC for performing an activity shift their locus of causality to a more external orientation when they received a reward, and consequently their intrinsic motivation decreases
but is this always the case?

12. CET: Controlling and informational functions of rewards
Cognitive Evaluation Theory states that rewards are likely to serve two main functions:
Information function. If the reward provides information about the individuals' competence then it is quite likely that intrinsic motivation can be enhanced with rewards.
Controlling function. If the rewards are seen to be controlling behaviour (i.e., the goal is to obtain the reward rather than participate for intrinsic reasons), then withdrawal of the reward is likely to lead to subsequent decreases in intrinsic motivation.

13. CET: Three propositions (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Proposition 1. “External events relevant to the initiation and regulation of behaviour will affect a person's intrinsic motivation to the extent that they influence the perceived locus of causality for that behaviour. Events that promote a more external locus of causality will undermine intrinsic motivation, whereas those that promote a more internal perceived locus of causality will enhance intrinsic motivation”

14. CET: Three propositions (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Proposition 2. “External events will affect a person's intrinsic motivation for an optimally challenging activity to the extent that they influence the person's perceived competence ...”
“Events that promote greater perceived competence will enhance intrinsic motivation, whereas those that diminish perceived competence will decrease intrinsic motivation”

15. CET: Three propositions (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Proposition 3. “Events relevant to the initiation and regulation of behaviour have three potential aspects, each with a functional significance. The informational aspect facilitates an internal perceived locus of causality and perceived competence, thus enhancing intrinsic motivation …”

16. CET: Three propositions (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Proposition 3 (cont 1). “The controlling aspect facilitates an external perceived locus of causality, thus undermining intrinsic motivation and promoting extrinsic compliance or defiance”

17. CET: Three propositions (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Proposition 3 (cont 2). “The amotivating aspect facilitates perceived incompetence, thus undermining intrinsic motivation and promoting amotivation. The relative salience of these three aspects to a person determines the functional significance of the event”

18. Possible links between rewards and intrinsic motivation in exercise
REWARDS  
Reward seen to be reason for exercise involvement [‘controlling function’]
Reward provides information about competence in exercise [‘controlling function’]
Perceived success
Perceived lack of success
Intrinsic motivation likely to decline
Intrinsic motivation likely to increase

19. Self-Determination Theory

20. A continuum of self-determination and different types of motivation
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
AMOTIVATION
capacity-ability beliefs
strategy beliefs
capacity-effort beliefs
helplessness beliefs
EXTERNAL REGULATION
INTROJECTED REGULATION
IDENTIFIED REGULATION
INTEGRATED REGULATION
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
to know
to accomplish
to experience stimulation
-  SELF-DETERMINATION  +

21. SDT: Types of motivation
AMOTIVATION:
the relative absence of motivation
a lack of contingency between actions and outcomes is perceived
reasons for continuing involvement cannot be found

22. SDT: Types of motivation
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION (4 main types of ‘behavioural regulation’):
External
Introjected
Identified
Integrated

23. SDT: Types of motivation
External regulation: behaviour is controlled by rewards, threats and possible coercion
Introjected regulation: the individual is acting out of avoidance of negative feelings, such as guilt
Identified regulation: action motivated by an appreciation of valued outcomes of participation
Integrated regulation: the behaviour is performed to satisfy important personal goals that are symbolic of the person’s self identity (i.e., they are ‘integrated’ with the self)

24. SDT: Types of motivation
The four main types of extrinsic motivation:
external, introjected, identified, and integrated regulation
External regulation: behaviour is controlled by rewards, threats and possible coercion
Introjected regulation: the individual is acting out of avoidance of negative feelings, such as guilt, or to seek approval from others
Identified regulation: action motivated by an appreciation of valued outcomes of participation
Integrated regulation: the most self-determined extrinsic form of behavioural regulation and the behaviour is performed to satisfy important personal goals
intrinsic motivation: participation for fun and for the activity itself.

25. Correlations between SDT constructs
(from a meta-analysis by Chatzisarantis et al., 2003)
.75
INTRINSIC
.39
.55
IDENTIFIED
.45
INTROJECTED
.10
-.27
.53
EXTRINSIC
-.15
AMOTIVATION
.14

26. Correlations between SDT constructs and intentions and competence
Key: Amot: amotivation
Extr: Extrinsic/external
Intro: introjected
Iden: identified
Intr: Intrinsic
(from a meta-analysis by Chatzisarantis et al., 2003)

27. Hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997)
Needs
Outcomes
Global
Factors
Global
Motivation
Needs
Outcomes
Contextual
Motivation
Contextual
Factors
Needs
Outcomes
Situational
Factors
Situational
Motivation

28. LOCUS OF CONTROL

29. Locus of Control (LOC)
Rotter (1966) formalised the construct of LOC as a generalised belief of internal versus external control of reinforcements

30. Locus of Control (LOC) Rotter (1966) defined 'internals' as follows:
"If the person perceives that the event (the reinforcement) is contingent upon his/her own behaviour or his/her own relatively permanent characteristics, we have termed this a belief in internal control".

31. Locus of Control (LOC) Rotter (1966) defined 'externals' as follows:
"When a reinforcement is perceived ... as following some action of his/her own but not being entirely contingent upon his/her action, then ... it is typically perceived as the result of luck, chance, fate, as under the control of powerful others, or as unpredictable ... When the event is interpreted in this way, ... we have labelled this a belief in external control".

32. Locus of Control and physical activity
THE CONSTRUCT OF LOCUS OF CONTROL REMAINS POPULAR BUT …
HAS NOT BEEN A STRONG PREDICTOR OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION

33. Attributions
Attributions are the perceived causes and reasons people give for an outcome or behaviour
The focus is often on the perceived causality of behaviour, thus the term 'causal attributions' is sometimes used

34. Attribution dimensions
locus of causality dimension: classifies attributions as they relate to the individual (internal) or reside outside of the individual (external)
stability dimension: refers to the classification of attributions in relation to their temporal stability, with some attributions being transient (unstable) and others relatively permanent (stable) over time
controllability dimension: classifies attributions in terms of whether they are controllable or uncontrollable

35. 6 applications of attributional principles to health education (1) (Lewis & Daltroy, 1990)
development of therapeutic relationships: eliciting attributions can assist in the development of empathy between patient and carer, or between other relationships in health settings
creation of correct attributions: assistance in developing informed judgements about one’s health status may be important for psychosocial adjustment, particularly where illness is concerned
alteration of incorrect attributions: attributional change may be functional, either through misattribution alteration or through changes made in the dimensional structure of the attributions formed

36. 6 applications of attributional principles to health education (2) (Lewis & Daltroy, 1990)
alteration of the focus of the attribution: the attributional focus may need to be shifted away from one area (e.g. uncontrollable illness) to another. This may act as a coping mechanism or assist in personal adjustment
attribution of characteristics of the individual: health professionals can use attributional statements in reference to the individual client or patient. These might motivate behaviours if the statements give certain cues to the individual, such as how good a person they are or how capable they are
maintenance of perceived personal effectiveness: making the right attributions will have an influence on perceived competence and efficacy for the maintenance of their health behaviours.

37. Application of attributions to exercise
Research in exercise has shown that:
attributing exercise progress to internal, stable and personally controllable factors is associated with feelings of positive emotion and self-efficacy
McAuley (1991)

38. Perceptions of the incremental nature of ability

39. Entity and Incremental Beliefs
People subscribe to differing views of ability
Those who view that a particular attribute is fixed and relatively stable hold an ‘entity’ view or ‘entity theory’
Those seeing the attribute as changeable and open to development hold an ‘incremental’ view or theory.

40. Entity and Incremental Beliefs
Research in physical activity with children has shown:
Incremental beliefs negatively predicts amotivation towards physical education and sport
Entity beliefs positively predicts amotivation towards physical education and sport
enjoyment of physical activity is positively associated with incremental beliefs

41. Chapter 4: Conclusions
Cognitive Evaluation Theory remains a viable theory for the study of motivational processes in physical activity
Self-Determination Theory is an important perspective for the study of motivation in physical activity and is likely to increase our understanding of motivation in the future, in particular the different types of extrinsic motivation that might exist in physical activity
current research findings are not supportive of locus of control being a strong determinant of physical activity and exercise.
the tenets of attribution theory are applicable to health and exercise and could provide an important perspective for understanding cognitive, affective and behavioural aspects of most health domains
beliefs concerning the stability of ‘athletic ability’ may be important motivational factors in physical activity