1. Nanda Mitra-Itle Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Learning Styles
Nanda Mitra-Itle
Indiana University of Pennsylvania

2. Discussion Points Think-Pair-Share Brief learning styles inventory
What’s hot in education
Agree or Disagree
What are learning styles
Learning styles assessments
Levels of research
Valid or not valid
Debate
What should I do now
Questions

3. Questions
I heard one of my classmates say the other day that they didn't care if there was no empirical evidence for learning styles... they know that they are a visual learner. This made me think about my own "learning style" (if it exists) and the components that go into/are required for me to truly learn something. Anecdotally, it seems that many of us as individuals and not school psychologists, recognize that there are methods of learning that are more effective for us than others. I just wondered if others recognize a preferred method of learning within themselves? (Amy)

4. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-share
How do you normally study for tests, particularly in subjects that are difficult for you (i.e. physiology, music theory, etc)?
Think back to a class (Elementary, MS HS or undergrad) where you learned a lot. Perhaps even changed your life in some way. How was it conducted? What about that class had such an impact on you?

5. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-share
Act first, think/reflect later
Feel deprived when cutoff from interaction with the outside world
Usually open to and motivated by outside world of people and things
Enjoy wide variety and change in people relationships
Think/reflect first, then Act
Regularly require an amount of "private time" to recharge batteries
Motivated internally, mind is sometimes so active it is "closed" to outside world
Prefer one-to-one communication and relationships
1. External vs internal
2. External- drawn to the outside world as their elemental source of energy. Rarely, if ever do they feel their energy batteries drained by excessive amounts of interaction with the outside world. They must engage the things , people, places and activities going on in the outside world for their life force.
3. Internal-draw their energy from the inner world of information, thoughts, ideas and other reflections. When circumstances require an excessive amount of attention spend in the outside world those preferring this find the need to retreat to a more private setting as if to recharge their drained batteries.

6. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-share
Mentally live in the Now, attending to present opportunities
Using common sense and creating practical solutions is automatic-instinctual
Memory recall is rich in detail of facts and past events
Best improvise from past experience
Like clear and concrete information; dislike guessing when facts are "fuzzy"
Mentally live in the Future, attending to future possibilities
Using imagination and creating/inventing new possibilities is automatic-instinctual
Memory recall emphasizes patterns, contexts, and connections
Best improvise from theoretical understanding
Comfortable with ambiguous, fuzzy data and with guessing its meaning
Sensing vs intuiting
Sensing=favor clear, tangible data and info that fits into their direct here and now experiences.
Intuitive= drawn to info that is more abstract, conceptual, big-picture and represents imaginative possiblties for the future.

7. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-shareF
Instinctively search for facts and logic in a decision situation.
Naturally notices tasks and work to be accomplished.
Easily able to provide an objective and critical analysis.
Accept conflict as a natural, normal part of relationships with people
Instinctively employ personal feelings and impact on people in decision situations
Naturally sensitive to people needs and reactions.
Naturally seek consensus and popular opinions.
Unsettled by conflict; have almost a toxic reaction to disharmony.
Thinking vs feeling
Thinking-natural preference for making decision in an objective, logical and analytical manner with an emphasis on tasks and results to be accomplished.
Feeling (sensing)-preference for their feeling judgments make their decisions in a somewhat global, visceral, harmony and value oriented way, paying particular attention to the impact of decisions and actions on other people

8. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-shareJ
Comfortable moving into action without a plan; plan on-the-go.
Like to multitask, have variety, mix work and play.
Naturally tolerant of time pressure; work best close to the deadlines.
Instinctively avoid commitments which interfere with flexibility, freedom and variety
Plan many of the details in advance before moving into action.
Focus on task-related action; complete meaningful segments before moving on.
Work best and avoid stress when keep ahead of deadlines.
Naturally use targets, dates and standard routines to manage life.
Judging vs perceiving
judging-depend on their thinking or feeling preference to manage their outer life. This typically leads to a style oriented towards closure, organization,, planning or in some fashion managing the things and or people found in the external environment. The drive is to order the outside world. Whiles some people employ an assertive manner, others order touching with respect to people may be light.
Perceiving-rely upon their sensing or intuiting to run their outer life. This typically results in an open, adaptable, flexible, style of relating to the things and people found in the outside world. The drive is to e experience the outside world rather than order it; in general lack of closure is easily tolerated.
Write your 4 Letter Personality Code

9. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-share
Do I have patterns to the type of materials I enjoy?
Do I have a preference for a particular study/learning style? Teaching style?
What learning style would I be?

10. What’s my learning style? Think-pair-share
“Students are not failing because of the curriculum. Students can learn almost any subject matter when they are taught with methods and approaches responsive to their learning styles strengths” (Dun; cited by Ellis, 2001).
“We sometimes pretend something is true not because there’s evidence for it but because we want it to be true” (Sagan; cited by Ellis, 2001).
Thoughts?

11. What’s hot in education now?

12. What’s hot in education now
Differentiation
Learning Focused Schools
Grouping (I.e. ability, cooperative, interest, etc)
IEP/GIEPs
Distance Learning
Specialized curriculum
Research based programs Tier I or II.
Increasing student achievement
1. What is differentiation, LFS, etc?

13. What’s hot in education now
What do all these have in common?
Individualization of content to increase student achievement or maximize potential.
Are these the answers to meeting accountability standards for at risk students? (Anderson, 2007)
Are these the answers…..? Only research knows
2. Why the popularity?
Idea of teacher creativity
Idea that learners are all different
Seems to make intuitive sense
Definitional disagreements of intelligence, educational theories, etc

14. Learning Styles Agree or Disagree:
Each us receives and processes information differently?
Teachers should make every attempt to know how students learn best?
Intelligence and ability are equal but differentially distributed among individuals?
Typical school assignments tend to discriminate in favor or against certain learners?
Style based instruction increases learning?
Any given style is not superior to another?
Global (field dependent) intuitive learners tend to score lower on tests of analytical abilities (considered basic to ones intelligence as measured by IQ). Are they less intelligent than analytical thinkers?
(Ellis, 2001)
1. Lecture format simply more suited to ones person’s learning style (auditory) than another's. This implies that otherwise capable people are left behind b/c their approach to learning is inappropriate, not b/c they are incapable of learning the idea (Ellis, 2001).

15. Learning Styles Agree or Disagree:
“It (learning style) has failed to distinguish among personality, ability, environment and other variables, leading to confusion over the very meaning of the construct? (Sternberg; cited by Ellis, 2001)
Learning style is preference rather than ability?
“This could lead teachers quickly into a labyrinthine world of diagnosis in the search for style?”
Learning Styles are more elements that affect a person’s ability to learn than ways of learning themselves?
Learning styles is an idea conjured as an excuse for the lack of achievement of students?
(Ellis, 2001)
Teachers would have to determine a person’s individual style, culture, social context, etc.
Witkin said that any given…..
Depend on definition of intelligent

16. What are Learning Styles?

17. Learning Styles Premise underlying popularity?
“For all students to receive an equitable education does not mean that they all receive the same education; it means that they all are taught in ways that promote their individual opportunities to learn” (Alder, 2000).
This premise leads to conclusion that teachers must match learning styles, change curriculum to make it fit, adaptive skill levels for student, etc(Alder, 2000).
Each person has a combination of modality strengths formed by the interaction between individual and environmental characteristics. These modalities lead to styles of how we think, learn and communicate (Ellis,2001)

18. Learning Styles How defined?
“characteristic cognitive, affective and psychological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment” (Keefe 1979; cited by Johnson & Johnson 2006)
“..combination of various biological and experiential variables that contribute to learning” (Rochford, 2003; cited by Johnson & Johnson 2006)

19. Learning Styles How defined cont…:
“cognitive style that a person manifests when confronted with a learning task, and specifically as a predisposition to use a particular learning strategy irrespective of learning task differences (Schmeck, 1983; cited by Frisby, 1993)
“stable attitudes, preferences, or habitual strategies determining a persons typical modes of perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem solving (Messick, 1976; cited by Frisby, 1993)

20. Learning Styles How defined cont…:
“Learning styles is that consistent pattern of behavior and performance by which an individual approaches educational experiences…composite of characteristics cognitive, affective, and physiological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with and responds to the learning environment. It is formed in the deep structure of neural organization and personality (that) molds and is molded by human development and the cultural experiences of home, school and society.” (National Task Force on Learning Styles and Brain Behavior; as cited by Ellis, 2001)

21. (Sternberg; as cited by Ellis, 2001)
Learning Styles
Individual’s way of processing information using one of several categories: cognition-centered, personality-centered, activity-centered, and teaching styles.
(Sternberg; as cited by Ellis, 2001)

22. Learning Styles Areas:
Cognition-perceiving, finding out, getting information.
Personality (Conceptualization)-thinking, forming ideas, processing memory.
Activity
Teaching
Affective-feelings emotional responses, values, judgments
(Ellis, 2001)
It is common to categorize learning styles into some type of taxonomy of human characteristics of learning behavor-Ellis.
Witkin’s field-dependent/independent (field independent as been correlated with measures of spatial and verbal ability which are factors of intelligence that are recognized; Kagan’s impulsive/reflective styles (cog)
Personality-jungian introversion/extroversion, thinking/feeling, intuitive/sensing, perceptive/judgmental; gregorc’s concrete/abstract, sequential/random (conceptualization)
Activity- kolb’s convergent/divergent and assimilating/accommodating; Dun and Dunn’s environmental, emotional, sociological, and physical. (conceptualization)
Teaching- Henson and Borthwick styles of task oriented, cooperative planner, child-centered, learning-centered and emotionally exciting styles.
Affective-jung-Myers-briggs; mok;Keirsey and bates; Dunn and Dunn.

23. Learning styles assessments?

24. Question
It seems that Sternberg's theory of thinking styles is very closely aligned with Gardener's multiple intelligences theory. If we assessed students using this theory do you think we would find evidence for the treatment x aptitude interaction that we are always looking for? (Joie)

25. Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite;
Measurement Instruments: Myers-Briggs
Uses the 3 Jungian dimensions - Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuition (preferring the concrete or the abstract), Thinking-Feeling (preferring logic or values), plus one created by Isabel Briggs - Judging-Perceiving (being organized or flexible and easygoing).
Numerous studies have provided evidence of its validity. The Manual for Type sites hundreds of studies that demonstrate its psychometric soundness. However, while it has been revised many times, the very nature of a self report psychological inventory includes limitations with reliability. However, theoretically any test-taker should have an organic type that is stable over a lifetime, and once they discover that type they should be able to reliably interpret the information related to their type.
It is the most widely used inventory in and out of education and has been translated into several languages. More research has been conducted on the MBTI than all of the other inventories combined.

26. Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite;
Measurement Instruments: Howard Gardner
“Identifies seven intelligences: Logical/mathematical, Visual/spatial, Bodily/kinesthetic, Musical, Linguistic, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal.
There appears to be no apparent evidence of the validity or reliability of this particular instrument and Gardner himself does not claim MI to be a learning styles theory or that there is any reliable means to determining the type of a person.
He just offers the theory that there are more types of intelligence than what has been historically considered.”
The MIDAS appears to be the only instrument endorsed by Gardner. It has a version for teens aged and one for adults/college students over 20 years of age.

27. Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite;
Measurement Instruments: Kolb
Identifies 2 dimensions Reflective vs. Experiential and Concrete vs. Abstract. The result is four type combinations: Converging (prefer to learn by solving problems and doing technical tasks, good a finding practical uses for ideas and theories), Accommodating (hands-on, people-oriented, relies on gut feeling more than logical analysis), Diverging (imaginative and sensitive, prefers to learn by observing, brainstorming and gathering information, good at viewing concrete situations from many points of view) and Assimilating (prefers to learn by putting information into concise logical order).
Although the Kolb model has been popular and the subject of many studies, some scholars question the model’s validity, primarily because the scale asks respondents to rank rather than rate items (see, for example, Hayes & Allinson, 1997, and Curry, 1987). The scale is short (12 items) and self-scored.

28. Kolb’s learning styles

29. Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite;
Measurement Instruments: Dun and Dun-Perceptual modality preference survey
Characterized by a multitude of learning style dimensions, including Immediate Environment (with subscales for Noise Level, Light, Temperature, Design [formal or informal learning environment], Emotionality, Motivation, Persistence, Responsibility, and Structure [need for external structure]), Sociological Needs (with subscales for Learning Alone/Peer Oriented, Authority Figures Present, and Learn in Several Ways), and Physical Needs (with subscales for Auditory, Visual, Tactile, Kinesthetic, Requires Intake, Evening-Morning/Late Morning/Afternoon, and Needs Mobility).
While the model has some content validity, it is limited in that it does not really deal with psychological dimensions of learning. As a result it lacks an organic basis and therefore stability of “type.” This also creates a limitation in how it can be used to make educational choices or determine student needs or aptitudes.
This model has been used in countless studies, and some feel that it has been well validated (Lewthwaite & Dunham, 1999; Curry, 1987; Dunn & Griggs, 1995), but others strongly criticize the model as unvalidated and lacking an underlying theory (Bonham, 1988; Kavale, Hirschoren, & Forness, 1998; Kaiser, 1998). Another concern is that the instrument has so many scales (21) that it might be difficult for students and faculty to assimilate them all and “see the forest for the trees,” drawing an overall picture of learning style.

30. Learning Styles (Felder & Spurlin, 2005)
Measurement Instruments: Index of Learning Styles (ILS)
Sensing (concrete thinker, practical, oriented towards facts and procedures) or Intuitive (abstract thinker, innovative, oriented toward theories and underlying meaning)
Visual (diagrams, flow charts, etc) or Verbal (written/spoken explanations)
Active (learn by trying out, enjoy working in groups) or Reflective (learning by thinking things through, working alone or with a single partner).
Sequential (linear thinking process, learn in small incremental steps) or Global (holistic thinking process, learn in large leaps)

31. Learning Styles(Felder & Spurlin, 2005)
Felder-Silverman model adds several qualifying statements before using their Index of Learning Styles (ILS) assessment instrument:
Learning styles dimensions are continua not categories.
Profiles suggest behavioral tendencies not infallible predictors
Preferences are not reliable indicators of strength/weakness
Affected by student’s educational experiences
Point is not to ID, label and modify.
Some validity and reliability

32. Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite;
Measurement Instruments: Abiator/Modalities:
The Abiator site is one of many that incorporates three learning style dimensions/modalities: Visual, Auditory, and Tactile/Kinesthetic. There is no apparent evidence of reliability or validity. Because these instruments address sensory perceptions, however, it makes intuitive sense and therefore has some face validity.

33. Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite;
Measurement Instruments: Field Dependence/Independence:
Identifies two cognitive styles: field dependent and field independent. This is one of the rare learning styles instruments that has been reasonably well validated; the field dependence/field independence model has successfully predicted academic performance in a number of studies (Hayes & Allinson, 1997; Thompson et al, 1979; Wilson, 1998). (Field independent students are more likely than field dependent students to succeed academically.)
Unlike many of the other inventories and theories, these dimensions are entirely distinct and separate from the Jungian dimensions. So they do not have any relation to introversion-extroversion, concreteness-abstractness, or random-sequential thinking in any way. This makes this theory a useful adjunct to the others. It is also quite predictive of what might be called giftedness. Those who have a field-independent preference due to their narrow focus and ability to screen can process information more efficiently, but may miss the social context that their field-dependent peers more readily perceive. So an over simplification would be that field-dependence leads to popularity and field-independence leads to academic success.
Some scholars feel, however, that the GEFT measures ability rather than learning style, making it an inappropriate choice as a tool to help students understand themselves.

34. Ellis’s Levels of Research?

35. Ellis’s Levels of Research?
Level I?
Brain-mind research
Psychological research on individual differences
Problems?
Close association of assessment instruments with intelligence measures.
Weak link b/w theoretical work, assessment and practice.
Validity and reliability of assessment measures
(Ellis, 2001)
Ways in which different people approach problem solving and intellectual tasks.
Brain- certain gene functions may have implications for learning styles but to date most of the work done has been with animals, mainly insects in lab setting.
Psychological research-Jung cited as one of pioneers in this area; kagan’s work of impulsivity/reflectivity in learning are considered seminal; Kolber, witkin IB Myers and Leslie Briggs also important here
Confusion in psych research b/c some of research based on personality type, some cognitive functioning, some on activity.
Problems-ex. if you ask a teacher who is likely to be more intelligent, a reflective person or an impulsive person, the answer seems obvious. Impulsive types have been shown ,for example, to have lower motivation to master tasks and tend to have relatively lower performance standards.
Validity-a factor analysis of found measures showed that each instrument was measuring distinctly different characteristics.

36. Ellis’s Levels of Research?
Level II?
Dun and Dun meta-analysis
Oakland study with temperament based learning style and gifted/nongifted students.
Other studies, etc
Problems?
10 studies eluded to were, with exception of 2 or3, in journals with little reputation for publishing.
35 unpublished studies were dissertations.
24 of cited dissertation studies done under Dun et al direction.
(Ellis, 2001)
Dun and Dun-reviewed 36 different studies with a database of 3181 participants. representing investigations that range from elementary to college. Positive results for special education and LD kids. Eluded to positive outcomes in 10 published and 1 unpublished research article. They reported effect side of .75.
Journals referring to-educational leadership, journal of college student dev, teaching k-8 principal.
Oakland-surveyed 1554 students age 8-17 using Student Styles Questionnaire. They found significant differences between two groups. Gifted preferred imaginative styles while nongifted preferred practical style. On dimensions such as extroversion-no difference. Girls showed stronger preference for imaginative than boys.

37. Ellis’s Levels of Research?
Level II Problems cont….:
Experimental designs used in classroom based learning styles research weak and have inadequate controls.
Researcher bias
Hawthorn effect from doing something new
Studies conducted by graduate students for dissertations.
Replicatability problems
(Ellis, 2001)
1. Dun and Dun-

38. Questions
After sitting through today's class and talking specifically about strong and/or possible evidence of effectiveness, I thought it was interesting that Dunn, et al, did a meta- analysis on the learning style model of Dunn and Dunn and used studies that were either published in journals of questionable reputation or just not published at all. And of the 36 studies included in the meta-analysis, 35 unpublished studies were doctoral dissertations and 24 of the cited dissertations were done under the direction of Dunn and her colleagues......WOW! Aren't Dunn and her colleagues worried about their own reputation as legitimate researchers?? Sometimes I wonder what people are thinking (Marybeth)

39. Ellis’s Levels of Research?
Level III?
None
Ellis mentions the lack of level III research evaluating learning styles. Is anyone aware of any studies published since? I assume there isn’t much more research to report, as Ellis dropped the topic from the new edition…thoughts? (Sandra)

40. Questions
There is little empirical support for the existence of learning styles, however, Ellis notes that the work of Sternberg and Grigorenko "seems to offer considerable promise." According to Ellis, Sternberg believes that in order to teach all of our students we need to take their learning styles into account. Doesn't good teaching encompass presenting information in a variety of ways? Isn't the Orton-Gilligham approach based on the idea that information should be presented visually, orally, and tactilely? Seeing, hearing, and feeling the various letters and letter sounds is said to improve learning and memory. (Erin)

41. To be or not to be valid, that is the question?

42. Valid?
Pro
Con
Modalities change over time as demonstrated in duplications of classic studies (Burns, Johnson & Gable, 1998).
Low and High Low SES achievers differed only on motivation and persistence factors (Caldwell & Ginther, 1996)
Dunn & Price study of 1980 gifted students-tactile and kinesthetic(Burns, Johnson & Gable, 1998).
Learning styles information valuable in designing instruction (Felder et al, 2005)
Burns et al-two studies conducted with students in 4, 5,,6th grade academically talented and gen educ students identified different learning styles.
Another study found that musically talented adolescents did not demonstrate a preference to learn auditorially.
Confounding factors are: social, cultural, experiential, economic background, gender, disability, reading achievement, etc.
Only characteristics found to be persistent in high ach students was preference for little structure and presistence

43. Valid?
Pro
Con
All students in their study performed better on standardized tests when using their learning styles and continued trend in next 2 to 3 years (Burke & Dunn, 2003).
A study found differences in styles between Mexican Americans and European Americans (Alder, 2000)
A study found that students who were taught using a Multisensory Instructional Pkg based on their learning styles performed better than a control group (Farkas, 2003).
A study examining learning style and preference for online learning support found no significant relationship b/w learning style and achievement on in-class examinations (Johnson et al, 2006).
Learning style theories have devised more than 70 constructs and ways of identifying and implementing them (Mortimore, 2005).
Definition of intelligence is being reexamined. (Ellis, 2001).
Mexicans valued-cooperative strategies, humor, social context, writing showed less strength of conviction
Whites-directive style which gives wt to writers pt of view; less affected by opinion of others.
Hispanics and Blacks need more justification as to course relevance /c of personal experiences in not seeing minorities who have not fared well.

44. Valid?
Pro
Con
Many differences attributed to learning/cog styles also attributed to gender diff (Frisby, 1993)
Psychometric intelligence better predictor of reading/math ach (Frisby, 1993)
Debate over whether self-report methodology valid? (Frisby, 1993)
A study examining learning style and preference for online learning support also found active and visual learners appeared disadvantaged under online study gps (Johnson et al, 2006).
Active & visual scored lower on in class examinations following on-line study gp (Johnson et al, 2006)
Active learners-preference for on-line quizzes
Visual-on-line quizzes better than on-line study gps.

45. Valid?
Pro
Con
Construct validity and reliability of learning styles instruments questionable (Frisby, 1993)
Matching approach may stunt growth (Frisby, 1993)
Modality model has not yielded the promised results (Kavale & Forness, 1987)
99% of Special education teachers thought a child’s modality should be a major consideration and 93% believed their students learned more when modalities matched (Arter & Jenkins, 1977 as cited by Kavale & Forness, 1987)
Active learners-preference for on-line quizzes
Visual-on-line quizzes better than on-line study gps.

46. Valid?
Pro
Con
Learning styles inventories are the first instances of testing where a failure to solve a problem puts one in a different category.
Style preference does not necessarily translate into higher achievement
Research has shown that field independent or analytic style correlate with measures of spatial and verbal ability.
Sternberg-School children who were viewed as stupid often suffer from merely a mismatch b/w their style and teacher.
(Ellis, 2001)

47. Question
Learning styles seem to be very controversial due to the lack of evidence supporting it and the disagreement about the true definitions. Learning styles is definitely a difficult construct to measure again, due to its various definitions, various inventories with low validity, and variability within individuals (one individual can have more than one learning style, primary and secondary), but because something is difficult to measure, does that make it invalid and unworthy of exploring? (Lisa K)

48. Debate
Blah, blah
Yap, Yap

49. Questions
If there is such a thing as learning style, which I believe there is, doesn’t direct instruction disregard many students’ learning styles? (Cherisse)
If learning styles exist, that would be a good point. So then why is direct instruction so effective? (Amy)

50. Debate topics Do learning styles exist?
Are differentiation, multi-sensory and learning styles related?
Is there utility to learning styles in the classroom?
Is learning styles worth exploring?

51. So what do I do now?
Learning Styles
No Learning Styles

53. So what do I do now?
Sternberg, “it is necessary that schools take into account not only fit between teacher and student (or principal and teacher) style but also the way a subject is taught and the way a student thinks (cited by Ellis, 2001).
Teacher should be sensitive to student differences, use different modalities, to reach different learners effectively.
Learners should accommodate to different situations, some of which match our style and some of which do not.
(Ellis, 2001)

54. So what do I do now? Is this good teaching anyway?
Questions at a variety of levels of thinking
Providing an overview of material before proceeding
Allowing sufficient time for info processing
Setting clear purposes
Spaced practice
Multisensory means to convey ideas
Using a variety of teaching and learning approaches?
Allowing students choices in methods of demonstrating learning
If research does not support learning styles then why differentiate instruction in these ways?
LS advocates propose number of teaching strategies that encompass a vareity of learning styles.
(Ellis, 2001)

55. Questions
I think that the true application of this - regardless of whether you buy into the idea of learning styles - is that teachers must differentiate instruction to meet the needs of the various students in their classroom. The examples of how to teach to different styles listed on page 153 are truly the ways to differentiate instruction. Is it truly necessary to talk about this and research it under the name learning styles or is it appropriate to recognize that all learners are unique and simply take into consideration the unique mix as teachers differentiate instruction? (Jane)

56. So what do I do now?
No matter what, good teaching is good teaching. Teachers should:
Have realistic expectations
Provide specific feedback
Clearly communicate
Make learning relevant to learner
Engage in positive interactions between student and teacher
(Alder, 2000)

57. So what do I do now?
Learning styles can be used to guide instructors on diversity of learning styles within their class(Felder et al, 2005)
It can help give individual students insight into their possible strengths and weakness (Felder et al, 2005)
(Warning) Keep in mind Learning styles have been shown to change over time and styles shown via measurements, may contradict student perceptions and have poor reliability and validity. So use with caution.

58. So what do I do now? (Caldwell et al, 1996).
Studies show students who had more controlling teachers performed lower than student of less controlling teachers.
Learning environments must be structured to achieve highest level of internal motivation from all students, particularly for low SES achievers.
There is value in teaching students through respectful attention and language to be aware of their own learning strategies (Mortimore, 2005)

59. Questions
Even if there was evidence that teaching to learning styles improved student achievement, to what extent would teachers be able to implement the styles in the classroom? How many styles would we expect one teacher to teach toward? How could we really teach each student to their “preference” if the research supported learning styles? And if we can’t (if it’s not feasible), then why are we researching it with hopes of improved student achievement? (Christina)

60. More Questions

61. Questions
While the research base to support learning styles is weak, would you recommend to a teacher to use the different modalities mentioned by Ellis such as stories, explanations, projects, and activities? I am not suggesting going as far to specifically assess or match learning styles since the research does not support it, but should teachers still try to vary their teaching styles with this possibility in mind? Have you ever worked with a student that you clearly felt displayed a specific learning style that was in opposition to the teacher's style of presentation? (Kourtney)

62. Questions
We have talked in depth about how teachers need to be properly trained in evaluating research and how to apply it. However, researchers must publish unbiased research based findings. The meta analysis by Dunn supports the use of learning styles however does not use published research and then used their own research. Is there an agreed upon definition for learning styles? Would a more concrete definition lead to more applicable research? (Lisa W)

63. References
Alder.N. (2000). PartIII: creating multicultural classrooms. Multlicultural Perspectives, 2(2),
Anderson, K.M. (2007). Differentiating instruction to include all students. Preventing School Failure, 51(3),
Burke, K., & Dunn, R. (2007). Learning style-based teaching to raise minority student test scores. Clearninghouse 76(2)
Burns, D.E., Johnson, S.E., & Gable, R.K. (1998). Can we generalize about the learning style characteristics. Roeper Review 20(4),
Caldwell, G.P., & Ginther, D.W. (1996). Differences in learning styles of low socioeconomic status for low and high achievers. Education 117(1),
Ellis, A.K. (2001). Research on educational innovations third edition. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.
Farkas, R.D. (2003). Effects of traditional versus learning-styles
instructional methods on middle school students. Journal of Educational Research, 9,
Felder, R.M., & Spurlin, J. (2005). Application, reliability and validity of the index of learning styles. International Journal of England Education 21(1),

64. References
Frisby, C.L. (1993). One giant step backwards: myths of black
cultural learning styles. School Psychology Review, 22(3),
Johnson, G.M, & Johnson, J.A. (2006). Learning style and preference for online learning support: individual quizzes versus study groups. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED493999)
Kavale, K.A., & Forness, S.R. (1987). Substance over style: assessing the efficacy of modality testing and teaching. Exceptional Children, 54(3),
Mortimore, T. (2005). Dyslexia and learning style-a note of caution. British Journal of Special Education, 32(3),
Personality Pathways. Retrieved July