1. Genes and Proteins

2. Investigation 1
Genes and Proteins

3. DNA Genetic Information
Chromosomes contain all of the information required to make a complete individual.
Half of an individual’s chromosomes come from their father and half from their mother,
Each individual is an entirely new combination of genetic information that,
unless they have an identical twin, has never occurred before and will never occur again

4. Karyotypes
Karyotypes view microscopic images of chromosomes and arrange them in pairs for analysis.
Each human has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Thus, each normal human has a total of 46 chromosomes.
Each chromosome pair contains genetic information from both the individual’s father and mother.
The final pair of chromosomes, the 23rd pair, determines the sex of the individual.
males have one “x” chromosome and one “y” chromosome,
females have two “x” chromosomes.

5. Chromosomes

6. DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Long, double stranded, molecule made up of chemical building blocks called nucleotides
Nucleotides consist of a phosphate, sugar, and one of four nitrogen bases
Adenine (A) ̶ Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) ̶ Thymine (T)
Different combinations of the nitrogen bases make up a person’s unique DNA

7. DNA
DNA has the appearance of a ladder that has been twisted. It is called a Double Helix

8. DNA

9. Replication

10. DNA Each molecule of DNA consists of smaller segments called genes.
Genes contain the information to make Proteins
Proteins are large molecules that are made up of amino acids (building blocks)
Cells convert info from genes into proteins with the help of RNA

11. RNA
Ribonucleic Acid
Single strand molecule, made up of nucleotides like DNA except thymine is replaced
Adenine (A) ̶ Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G) ̶ Uracil (U)
RNA acts as messenger (mRNA) and carries DNA information to other parts of the cell that make proteins

12. DNA into RNA The conversion of DNA into RNA is known as TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription takes place in the nucleus and it converts DNA into RNA
When DNA is converted to RNA there is a set of rules that are followed. This rule is known as the Base Pairing Rule

13. Transcription

14. Base Pairing Rule
Each base in DNA pairs or matches up with a base that will be used to create RNA
After RNA is made it acts as a messenger and carries code from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes

15. Transcription
DNA Double Helix unwinds and allows for base pairs to form RNA
Once the RNA single strand is formed the DNA is twisted back together and the RNA prepares to leave the Nucleus

16. Translation
RNA leaves the nucleus to ribosomes where the RNA code is translated into a protein
RNA code is translated into proteins in groups of three base nucleotides called Codons
Each codon group corresponds to a specific amino acid
Each Amino Acid has at least one codon; some more than one
There are codons that signal to stop the making of proteins

17. Translation

20. Protein Synthesis Transcription and Translation

21. Mutations
Mutation is a change in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene
Three Basic Mutations
Substitution: one nucleotide is changed into a different nucleotide
Insertion: one or more nucleotides are inserted (added) into the DNA sequence
Deletion: one or more nucleotides are deleted (removed) from the DNA sequence

23. DNA Controls the Function of Organisms
Genes contain DNA sequences that encode for proteins.
The DNA sequence and its corresponding RNA sequence instruct the cell to build a specific protein.
Each set of three nucleotides in the RNA (and DNA) corresponds to one amino acid in the protein.
Proteins are responsible for most of the functions of an organism’s cells.

24. Mutations Causing Changes in Organisms
Mutations may or may not lead to changes in an organism.
If the mutation in DNA does not change the amino acid sequence of the protein, then no change in function of that protein will occur and no change will be seen in the organism.
If the mutation in the organism does cause a change in amino acid sequence of the protein, then a change in function of the protein is possible and a corresponding change in the organism would be expected.

25. Investigation 2
Genes and Proteins

26. Proteins
Once the RNA has been translated into Amino Acids the Amino form proteins
Wild-Type Protein- a protein that is produced with no mutations

28. Proteins
Proteins fold in certain ways in order to perform certain functions
Proteins bind or attach to another molecule at a binding or active site
Binding Sites are formed by neighboring amino acids that are positioned together to form a pocket into which fits a molecule
Each Amino Acid has a different shape, so when they come together the pocket the form fits a specific molecule exactly.

29. Proteins- Primary Structure
Primary Structure: This refers simply to the sequence of amino acids in a protein.
This sequence, of course, is dictated by the DNA sequence of the gene.
This amino acid sequence is sometimes referred to as a polypeptide chain.
This is because the bonds that hold the amino acids together in a linear chain are call peptide bonds.

30. Secondary Structure
Secondary Structure: Due to the physical properties of the individual amino acids (remember, there are 20 different amino acids), sections of the polypeptide chain may interact with each other to form local structures.
For example, a stretch of amino acids may interact with each other to for a spiraling helix. They may also for zigzag structures and flat sheets. Such localized secondary structures may be important for a protein’s function.

31. Tertiary Structure
Tertiary Structure: A completed protein may have many secondary structures and amino acid sequences that attract and interact with each other.
Consequently, the overall amino acid chain often folds in upon itself in a very specific manner to form a tertiary structure.
One important result of such tertiary structure is that the folded protein’s three-dimensional structure may form surface areas that recognize and bind to other molecules.
Such a structure would clearly be important for the protein’s function. Oftentimes, mutations that affect protein function do so because a replaced amino acid, caused by the mutation, does not lead to the formation of functional binding sites on the protein molecule.

32. Quaternary Structure
Quaternary Structure: Finally, many proteins are actually composed of more than one polypeptide chain. In such cases, two or more different polypeptide chains, each with their own tertiary structure, bind to each other in very specific arrangements. When this happens, the individual polypeptide chains within the final protein molecule are typically referred to as subunits of the protein

34. Mutations in DNA
Yes. Mutations in DNA can lead to changes in the amino acid sequence of a protein.
Changes in amino acid sequence can cause changes to protein structure. Changes in protein structure may cause changes in function.
If a protein cannot function properly, some of the functions of the organism may be affected because functions of an organism often depend on the functions of the proteins within the organism.
However, not all mutations cause changes in an organism. Some mutations in DNA do not cause changes in the amino acid sequence of a protein and therefore do not change a protein’s structure or function.
Some mutations in DNA cause changes in amino acid sequences without changing the structure and function of a protein. Some mutations cause changes in the structure of a protein without affecting the function of a protein.

35. Investigation 3 Genes and Proteins
Genes and Proteins

36. DNA DNA is found in the nucleus of almost all body cells
Inside the Nucleus the DNA is located in special structures called Chromosomes
Chromosomes- contain many genes

37. Chromosomes
Each body cell contains two copies of each chromosomes, these copies are called Homologous Chromosomes
Each chromosome in a homologous pair came from each parent
Homologous chromosomes contain the same genes but they are not identical, they contain different alleles or versions of the genes

38. Cell Division
Cells in the body divide and produce new Cells in the process called the Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle is divided into different parts
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis

39. Cell Cycle Step 1: Interphase
Cell grows larger
DNA is replicated
Each chromosome in a pair is copied
The two identical copies of each chromosome are called Sister Chromatids
They are attached together by a structure called centromere
Cells prepares for division

40. Centromere

41. Cell Cycle Step 2: Mitosis
Mitosis is divided into 4 phases
PMAT
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

42. Mitosis Phase 1: Prophase
Prophase: the nuclear membrane dissolves
Chromosomes condense into rod-like structures that can be seen with a microscope

43. Mitosis Phase 2: Metaphase
Metaphase: spindle fibers have formed in the cell
Chromosomes line up as pairs of duplicated homologous chromosomes in the center of the cell

44. Mitosis Phase 3: Anaphase
Anaphase: chromatids separate and move down the spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell

45. Mitosis Phase 4: Telophase
Telophase: chromatids have moved to the ends of the spindle fibers and the spindle fibers disappear
Nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes
Cell is prepared to divide

46. Cell Cycle Step 3: Cytokinesis
Third step in the Cell Cycle is Cytokinesis, cells divide into two separate new cells
Telophase

48. Human Body Cells
Human body contain many cells that scientist classify into two groups
Somatic or Body Cells
Gametes or Sex Cells

49. Human Body Cells
Somatic Body Cells- Cells that make up different parts of the body such as: stomach, skin, muscles, and other organs
Gametes or Sex Cells – cells that make up egg or sperm cells
Gametes are responsible for passing on Genetic information from one generation to another
Gametes cells divide through meiosis

51. Mutations in a Single Cell Affect Function of the Organism
A mutation of the DNA in a gene in a single body cell will get copied when the chromosomes duplicate.
All of the new body cells formed through mitosis will then have the mutation. If the mutation causes a change in a protein, all cells will produce the mutant protein.
If the cells in an organ are producing mutant proteins, the organ may not function properly. Thus the organism may not function properly.

52. People to know

53. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
In 1951 made a crystal of the DNA molecule. 
DNA crystallized allowing them to make an x-ray pattern
The pattern appeared to contain rungs, like those on a ladder between to strands that are side by side.   

54. James Watson and Francis Crick
In 1953 using the X-ray picture from Franklin and Wilkins, made a double helix with little rungs connecting the two strands.
These rungs were the bases of a nucleotide.
Using the Base Pairing rule they were able to figure out the stability of the structure

55. DNA Structure

56. Nobel Prize
1962 Watson, Crick, and Wilkins Received the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine for their 1953 determination of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid 
Rosalind Franklin was not awarded the prize because she had died a few years prior