Chapter 3: Hinduism.

Chapter 3: Hinduism

Introduction to Asia East This course is organized East/West
Those in the East The East/West division is a product of the West East is diverse Labelling them all the same is misleading

Map of Eurasia in the 2nd century CE(=AD)
East This course is organized East/West Those in the East The East/West division is a product of the West East is diverse Labelling them all the same is misleading Map of Eurasia in the 2nd century CE(=AD)

Where is the centre of the world?
Chinese called themselves “The Middle Kingdom” (the centre part of the world) India likewise “Mediterranean” means “middle of the earth” The Silk Route Marco Polo did not discover China

“The Silk Route” Chinese called themselves “The Middle Kingdom”
(the centre part of the world) India likewise “Mediterranean” means “middle of the earth” The Silk Route Marco Polo did not discover China

Religions of India Though Hinduism is the oldest religion in India and still the religion of the largest proportion of the population (about 82%), not all Indians are Hindu. Over the course of Indian civilization, other religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism sprang up in India. After the diaspora, some Jews came to live in India. And after the eighth century, many Indians converted to Islam as that religion moved eastward across Asia. Later, some Indians converted to Christianity when they were exposed to it through European and American colonialism and missionary efforts.

Diversity in India Religious Diversity Linguistic Diversity
Judaism Christianity Catholic Protestant Buddhism Islam A large minority Hindu Tribal Religions Linguistic Diversity 22 languages are recognized by the Indian Constitution Hundreds of languages are spoken We can’t say “all Indians” do / think X. Though Hinduism is the oldest religion in India and still the religion of the largest proportion of the population (about 82%), not all Indians are Hindu. Over the course of Indian civilization, other religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism sprang up in India. After the diaspora, some Jews came to live in India. And after the eighth century, many Indians converted to Islam as that religion moved eastward across Asia. Later, some Indians converted to Christianity when they were exposed to it through European and American colonialism and missionary efforts.

Religion in Ancient India
Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the world. Like other ancient religious traditions, Hinduism is a composite of beliefs. Over time, these many traditions came together to develop into a recognizable religious tradition. Self-given label: “Sanatana Dharma” =Eternal Sacred Duty Amidst the religious variety on the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism has been seen, especially from the outside, as a kind of “default” religion. Historically, unless Indians named themselves as members of some other religion, others regarded them as Hindu. Indeed, “Hindu” was originally a Persian term meaning simply “those who live in the Indus River valley.” Like India itself, Hinduism has been a large house with many rooms. It has offered multiple ways to interact with the divine, and even multiple ways of describing and imaging the divine. It is still customary to refer to the ancient religion of India as Hinduism, at least after around 500 BCE when it began to take on many of its more modern forms. Sometimes Hindus refer to their own tradition as “Sanatana Dharma,” or Eternal Sacred Duty. The sense this phrase gives of an ordered cosmos and the rightful place of each person within it has been a strong theme in Hinduism.

Sanatana Dharma It is still customary to refer to the ancient religion of India as Hinduism, at least after around 500 BCE when it began to take on many of its more modern forms. Sometimes Hindus refer to their own tradition as “Sanatana Dharma,” or Eternal Sacred Duty. The sense this phrase gives of an ordered cosmos and the rightful place of each person within it has been a strong theme in Hinduism.

Hinduism's Expansiveness
Amidst the religious variety on the Indian subcontinent, Hinduism has been seen, especially from the outside, as a kind of “default” religion. Historically, unless Indians named themselves as members of some other religion, others regarded them as Hindu. Indeed, “Hindu” was originally a Persian term meaning simply “those who live in the Indus River valley.” Like India itself, Hinduism has been a large house with many rooms. It has offered multiple ways to interact with the divine, and even multiple ways of describing and imaging the divine.

How Old Is Hinduism? Texts “Vedic religion” rather than as Hinduism.
Vedas written BCE oral for hundreds/thousands of years. “Vedic religion” rather than as Hinduism. Indian religion at this time unlike later Hinduism It is hard to say just when Hinduism began. The texts it holds most sacred, the Vedas, are thought to have been committed to writing between 1500 and 900 BCE, though they were doubtless much older than that, having been passed down orally for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years. However, during the era in which the Vedas were written, Indian religion lacked many of the characteristics of Hinduism that were to develop later. For this reason, it is often referred to as “Vedic religion” rather than as Hinduism.

An Indian Definition of Hinduism
In 1966, the Indian Supreme Court listed seven features they believed characterized Hinduism (a list that was reaffirmed in 1995): acceptance and reverence for the Vedas, a spirit of tolerance, belief in vast cosmic periods of creation and destruction, belief in reincarnation, recognition of multiple paths to salvation and truth, polytheism, and philosophical flexibility (no single dogma). Of the seven items on the list of features of Hinduism adopted by the Indian Supreme Court, four of them reveal a central characteristic of Hinduism: its willingness to incorporate a variety of religious paths and practices, as well as gods and goddesses, into a single religion. Still, this definition refers to several very specific beliefs that characterize Hinduism. reverence for the Vedas and a foundational belief that both individual life and the universe move in cycles of birth, death, and rebirth.

Implications of the 1966 definition
Of the seven items on the list of features of Hinduism adopted by the Indian Supreme Court, four of them reveal a central characteristic of Hinduism: its willingness to incorporate a variety of religious paths and practices, as well as gods and goddesses, into a single religion. Still, this definition refers to several very specific beliefs that characterize Hinduism. reverence for the Vedas and a foundational belief that both individual life and the universe move in cycles of birth, death, and rebirth.

Religious Conflict in India
At many times in the history of India, Hinduism and other religions have coexisted remarkably peacefully. At other times, there has been conflict between different religious groups. between Hindus and Muslims, who at one time (before British colonialism) had political control of India. in 1947, conflict between Hindus and Muslims regarding the status of the new state reached a peak. To resolve the conflict, India was partitioned into two countries: India, and Pakistan Many Indians were displaced when the state was partitioned. India and Pakistan are still rivals. still a substantial Muslim minority in India. Compared to some other historical situations of religious discord, is relatively stable. Still, conflicts occasionally break out among different religious groups.

World Distribution of Hinduism
The majority of Hindus today live in India. In the first millennium CE, Hinduism spread throughout Southeast Asia. Later, with the advent of Buddhism in this area, Hinduism mostly retreated back to India, which is still its stronghold. In the modern era though, Hinduism has spread to every inhabited continent as Indian emigrants have taken their religion with them to their new homelands.

The Birth of Hinduism: Preview
The beginnings of Hinduism may be in the Indus Valley Civilization. It is disputed whether Hinduism blended older Indian religious beliefs with the religion of the Aryans. The caste system was an important aspect of Hinduism. Early Hindus worshiped gods of sun and fire and storm. The earliest Hindu scriptures are the Vedas. Vedic scriptures show a transition from ritual to philosophy.

Timeline of Hinduism Spans at least 3500 years from the beginnings of written scripture to now. Origin reaches back even farther The history of Hinduism is composed of five broad periods: • Formative period: BCE • Speculative period: BCE • Epic/Classical periods: 400 BCE-600 CE • Medieval period: CE • Modern period: 1800 CE-present

Indus Civilization Earliest known culture in India existed some 4500 years ago (2500 BCE). Indus Valley had several major cities, including Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. populations 40,000 people and quite advanced technologically. plumbing systems were unequalled in Europe until millennia later. had a written language, but it has yet to be deciphered. practiced religion, but we have little evidence to know what it was like. Some intriguing objects that may be early evidence for the Hindu religion. reliefs of a man sitting in full lotus phallic objects (similar to later images of the Hindu god Shiva, but no proven connection cities were abandoned before the earliest Hindu texts were written.

Indus Valley Civilization
The earliest civilization in India Begins around 2500 BCE A serious downturn around 1500 BCE Largely disappeared by 800 BCE Earliest known culture in India existed some 4500 years ago (2500 BCE). Indus Valley had several major cities, including Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. populations 40,000 people and quite advanced technologically. plumbing systems were unequalled in Europe until millennia later. had a written language, but it has yet to be deciphered. practiced religion, but we have little evidence to know what it was like. Some intriguing objects that may be early evidence for the Hindu religion. reliefs of a man sitting in full lotus phallic objects (similar to later images of the Hindu god Shiva, but no proven connection cities were abandoned before the earliest Hindu texts were written.

Sophisticated city-builders Sewers, grid system Earliest known culture in India existed some 4500 years ago (2500 BCE). Indus Valley had several major cities, including Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. populations 40,000 people and quite advanced technologically. plumbing systems were unequalled in Europe until millennia later. had a written language, but it has yet to be deciphered. practiced religion, but we have little evidence to know what it was like. Some intriguing objects that may be early evidence for the Hindu religion. reliefs of a man sitting in full lotus phallic objects (similar to later images of the Hindu god Shiva, but no proven connection cities were abandoned before the earliest Hindu texts were written.

Left: NO books Snippets of language on their art, but we can’t read it Two schools of speculation: The religion doesn’t disappear; it goes into hiding The culture is dead after 800 BCE; what comes next?

Indus Valley Art and inscriptions
Left: NO books Snippets of language on their art, but we can’t read it Two schools of speculation: The religion doesn’t disappear; it goes into hiding The culture is dead after 800 BCE; what comes next?

A new group Remember: There was an earlier civilization in ancient India The “Indo-Aryans” or “People of the Vedas” (the preferable term) Vedas: the texts these people produced Aryans: what these people call themselves. These newcomers did not build cities, but they did produce texts. Somewhat war-like, nomadic Move cattle around, displacing people Religion: fire sacrificial cult

The Aryan Invasion Theory
Theory (1) Hinduism a mix of religion from India & Aryan invaders. Vedas are in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. Assumption: languages spread by military conquest. Aryan invasion would have been between 2000 and 1500 BCE. Controversial: racial ideology Theory (2) Hinduism is completely native to India. popular view in India today. also ideologically based. Archaeological and linguistic data not conclusive (1) For last 200 years, Hinduism seen as a mix of religion from India & Aryan invaders. Why Aryan invaders? Vedas are in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. Like Greek, Latin, English, Spanish, Persian. Assumption: languages spread by military conquest. Aryan invasion would have been between 2000 and 1500 BCE. Aryan invasion theory is now controversial; has ideological overtones. many Europeans used it to claim that Indian culture was “originally” European. (2) Other scholars say Hinduism is completely native to India. popular view in India today. This view also is ideologically based. Archaeological and linguistic data are not conclusive in either direction.

Vedic Scriptures The earliest Hindu scriptures are called the Vedas.
4 Early Vedas 1500 BCE BCE: written forms of oral tradition. The four Vedas include the: • Rig Veda, • Yajur Veda (“ceremonial knowledge”), • Sama Veda (“chant knowledge”), and • Atharva Veda (“knowledge from Atharva,” a teacher).

Traditional Views of the Vedas
Śruti (shruti)=“that which is heard” The tradition views them as eternal, uncreated, and free of error. Because their original state is as sound, the tradition emphasises knowing the Vedas by heart, chanting the hymns with eloquence, and the performance of the hymns as part of Vedic rites.

Treasure people who work with poetry well: narrate. A teacher instructs a boy the correct accents for a Vedic chant Beginning at 4 years old, to 14. Only for priestly (and rich). Only for top 3 classes of society.

Mantra=a sacred verbal formula, used in Vedic (and now Hindu) rites. The tradition understands them to have power. Not to have something, but to do something. They have creative power if spoken aright. Ṛṣi (“Rishi”)=a “seer” or a “sage” Kavi=a “poet”. In the Vedic tradition, these were both religiously inspired. By Agni? By Soma? They could head the Vedas in their original form.

Early Vedic Religion & Ritual
earliest forms of Hinduism “Vedic”. Formative Period ( BCE). characterized by fire sacrifices. Priests (men from the Brahmin caste) officiated at rituals. Attention to detail: placing fire pits chanting proper hymns Purpose: communicate with and influence the gods. smoke strengthened and restored vital powers of universe. optimistic, world-affirming religion. Chaos could be reversed through the Vedic fire rituals.

Vedic Gods vital, brilliant beings associated with sky, storm, and fire. inhabited three-level cosmos Earth Atmosphere where communication between people and gods took place heaviest spiritual traffic. Sky

The Vedic Sacrifices and Rites
Sacrificial Fire cult: the main religious practice. (some take 15 minutes; some take weeks) Vedic ritual age: Height from BCE the age of “Karman” = the age of action In the Vedas, Karman and Karma only mean “action” (as opposed to Buddhism)

The Vedic Sacrifices and Rites
Materialism Give things to get things Afterlife is not a focus The medium is the message. Performative language not known by performers Death for successful rite human sacrifices? not at time of commentaries. Buddhism & Hinduism oppose violence Materials in rites are temporary. thatched roof, broken pottery. Hinduism has permanent temples, statues, icons Materialism Give things to the gods, so you get things back (or protection of things) Heaven is not a focus. There are things in the afterlife, but that’s almost all we know. It’s vague. The medium is the message. Performative. Not concerned with meaning or understanding. The language was not even known by most performers. Something had to die for the rite to succeed. Debate whether human sacrifices occurred originally. They did not at the time of the commentaries. Buddhism and Hinduism react against violence and the Vedic world. Materials of these rites are all temporary. Vedic structure: thatched roof, broken pottery. Hinduism reacts against this too (has permanent temples, statues, icons).

Hinduism Explain at least two ways a typical Hindu might begin his/her religious day. What are the Vedas? What role do they play in Hinduism today? What is reincarnation? What were Buddhism and Jainism reacting against within the Hindu faith? What is the caste system?

Vedic Pantheon Important gods of the Vedic pantheon:
• Dyaus Pitr (shining father), • Aditi (mother of the gods), • Indra (god of storm and war), • Agni (god of fire), • Rudra (god of the winds), • Surya (a sun god), • Varuna (god of sky and justice), • Vishnu (god of cosmic order), and • Ushas (goddess of the dawn). Dyaus Pitr related to Zeus and Jupiter (contact with Greece & Rome?). Virtually all male Important gods of the Vedic pantheon: • Dyaus Pitr (shining father), • Aditi (mother of the gods), • Indra (god of storm and war), • Agni (god of fire), • Rudra (god of the winds), • Surya (a sun god), • Varuna (god of sky and justice), • Vishnu (god of cosmic order), and • Ushas (goddess of the dawn). Dyaus Pitr related to Zeus and Jupiter (contact with Greece & Rome?). a father deity who ruled the entire pantheon of gods and goddesses. Virtually all the important deities in the Vedic pantheon were male. Goddesses (Aditi and Ushas) rarely mentioned in Vedic scriptures and rituals.

Agni Agni, the god of fire, had a special role to play in early Hinduism. He acted as the primary intermediary between this world and the heavens, taking the smoke from the fire sacrifices up to the other gods. On earth, Agni was the god of fire; in the atmosphere, he was lightning; in the sky, he was the sun. His name, Agni, is related to the English word “ignite.” (read Hymn to Agni) Agni, the Vedic god of fire, has two heads, one marks immortality and the other marks an unknown symbol of life. Agni has made the transition into the Hindu pantheon of gods, without losing his importance. With Varuna and Indra he is one of the supreme gods in the Rigveda. The link between heaven and earth, the deities and the humans, he is associated with Vedic sacrifice, taking offerings to the other world in his fire. In Hinduism, his vehicle is the ram (Wikipedia)

RV 1.1: A Vedic Hymn to Agni (tr. by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty) 1. I pray to Agni, the household priest who is the god of the sacrifice, the one who chants and invokes and brings most treasure. 2. Agni earned the prayers of ancient sages, and of those of the present, too; he will bring the gods here. 3. Through Agni one may win wealth, and growth from day to day, glorious and most abounding in heroic sons. 4. Agni, the sacrificial ritual that you encompass on all sides - only that one goes to the gods. 5. Agni, the priest with the sharp sight of a poet, the true and most brilliant, the god will come with the gods. 6. Whatever good you wish to do for the one who worships you, Agni, through you, O Angiras, that comes true. 7. To you, Agni, who shine upon darkness, we come day after day, bringing our thoughts and homage 8. to you, the king over sacrifices, the shining guardian of the Order, growing in your own house. 9. Be easy for us to reach, like a father to his son. Abide with us, Agni, for our happiness.

Soma A deity. Another god of the Vedic pantheon was Soma, the god of altered states of consciousness, linked with the moon, the waters, and bliss. 2. A plant, from which juice is squeezed. Soma was also the Sanskrit term for a stimulant or psychedelic drug consumed by other gods in the Vedic pantheon (especially Indra). Possibly a hallucinogen – flying, a rush. There are many theories today about what plant or plants were used to produce soma, but no one knows exactly what it was. Traditions say “if you can’t find soma, substitute this …” Most religions deal with mind-altering drugs. Alcohol in Christianity (mass) Tobacco in Native America … or ban them. (read poem about Indra)

Soma There are many theories today about what plant or plants were used to produce soma, but no one knows exactly what it was. Traditions say “if you can’t find soma, substitute this …” Most religions deal with mind-altering drugs. Alcohol in Christianity (mass) Tobacco in Native America … or ban them. (read poem about Indra)

The Killing of Vritra (Rig Veda 1.32)
Does this poem give you the impression that the religion was more about: Ideas or things? Beliefs or behaviours?

The Killing of Vritra 1 I WILL declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the Thunder-wielder. He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents. 2 He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvaṣṭar fashioned. Like lowing kine in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean. 3 Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Soma and in three sacred beakers drank the juices. Maghavan grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons. 4 When, Indra, thou hadst slain the dragon's firstborn, and overcome the charms of the enchanters, Then, giving life to Sun and Dawn and Heaven, thou foundest not one foe to stand against thee. 5 Indra with his own great and deadly thunder smote into pieces Vṛtra, worst of Vṛtras. As trunks of trees, what time the axe hath felled them, low on the earth so lies the prostrate Dragon. 6 He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous many-slaying Hero. He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed—Indra's foe—the shattered forts in falling. 7 Footless and handless still he challenged Indra, who smote him with his bolt between the shoulders. Emasculate yet claiming manly vigour, thus Vṛtra lay with scattered limbs dissevered. 8 There as he lies like a bank-bursting river, the waters taking courage flow above him. The Dragon lies beneath the feet of torrents which Vṛtra with his greatness had encompassed. 9 Then humbled was the strength of Vṛtra's mother: Indra hath cast his deadly bolt against her. The mother was above, the son was under and like a cow beside her calf lay Danu. 10 Rolled in the midst of never-ceasing currents flowing without a rest for ever onward. The waters bear off Vṛtra's nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness. 11 Guarded by Ahi stood the thralls of Dāsas, the waters stayed like kine held by the robber. But he, when he had smitten Vṛtra, opened the cave wherein the floods had been imprisoned. 12 A horse's tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second, Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers. 13 Nothing availed him lightning, nothing thunder, hailstorm or mist which had spread around him: When Indra and the Dragon strove in battle, Maghavan gained the victory for ever. 14 Whom sawest thou to avenge the Dragon, Indra, that fear possessed thy heart when thou hadst slain him; That, like a hawk affrighted through the regions, thou crossedst nine-and-ninety flowing rivers? 15 Indra is King of all that moves and moves not, of creatures tame and horned, the Thunder-wielder. Over all living men he rules as Sovran, containing all as spokes within the felly.

The Creation of the World
Rig Veda also contains an account of the creation of the world from the body of a superperson named Purusha. The separation of Purusha’s body has been used to justify the existence of the caste system.

Purusha Hymn (Rig Veda 10.90)
What did the parts of his body become? What are the four Sanskrit words for these four classes of people? Does it present some group as “better” than others?

RV 10.90 Purusha ('primal man') (tr. by Walter Maurer)
1. Thousand-headed is Purusha, thousand-eyed, thousand-footed. He covered the earth on all sides and stood above it the space of ten fingers. 2. Purusha alone is all this, what has been and what is to be, and he is the lord of the immortals, who gro further by means of food. 3. Such is his greatness, and greater than this is Purusha - a quarter of him is all beings, three-quarters of him the immortals in heaven. 4. Three-quarters of Purusha went upward, but a quarter of him was here below. From that he spread out in all directions into what eats and does not eat. 5. From that Vira:j was born; from Vira:j, Purusha. When he was born, he extended beyond the earth, behind and also in front. 6. When with Purusha as oblation the gods offered a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified butter, the summer the fuel, the autumn the oblation. 7. A sacrifice on the sacred grass they sprinkled him, Purusha, who was born in the beginning. With him the gods sacrificed, the Sa:dhyas and the seers. 8. From that sacrifice, a total offering, was brought together the clotted butter: it made the beasts: those of the air, of the forest and of the village. 9. From that sacrifice, a total offering, the Hymns of Praise and the Chants were born; the metres were born from it; the Sacrificial Formula from it was born. 10. From it the horses were born and whatsoever have incisor teeth in both jaws. The cows were born from it. From it were born the goats and sheep. 11. When they portioned out Purusha, in how many ways did they distribute him? What is his mouth called, what his arms, what his thighs, what are his feet called? 12. His mouth was the Bra:hmana, his arms were made the Ra:janya (= Kshatriya), what were his thighs were made the Vaishya, from his feet the Shu:dra was born. 13. The moon from his mind was born; from his eye the sun was born; from his mouth both Indra and Agni; from his breath the wind was born. 14. From his navel was the atmosphere; from his head the heaven evolved; from his feet the earth; the directions from his ear. Thus they fashioned the worlds. 15. Seven were the altar sticks; thrice seven burning logs were made, when the gods, offering the sacrifice, tied Purusha as their victim. 16. The gods sacrificed with the sacrifice to the sacrifice. These were the first rites. These powers reached the firmament, where the ancient Sa:dhyas are and also the gods.

Recap: The Birth of Hinduism
• The Indus Civilization may have contributed some elements to later Hindu religion. • Some have theorized that Hinduism was composed of an invading Aryan religion mixed with indigenous elements, but this is controversial. • The caste system has been an important feature of Hindu culture for most of Indian history. • Fire rituals were used by the earliest Hindus to communicate with the gods. • The early Vedic scriptures contain instructions for fire rituals and the character and names of the most important gods. • The Vedas are the earliest scriptures of Hinduism. They span a sequence of religious developments from the fire rituals to more abstract and philosophical systems within Hinduism.

Review: Chronology Rig Veda: complete by 1500 BCE
Formative period: BCE Speculative period: BCE Epic/Classical periods: 400 BCE-600 CE Medieval period: CE Modern period: 1800 CE-present Rig Veda: complete by 1500 BCE The Age of Karman: BCE Upanishads: begin around 600 BCE The Epics / Early Hinduism The Bhagavad Gītā is part of the Epic tradition 400BCE - 400CE

Later Scriptures 1000 - 500 BCE • Brahmanas, • Aranyakas,
• Upanishads. The later Vedic scriptures were written between 1000 and 500 BCE. They include the: • Brahmanas, • Aranyakas, and • Upanishads.

Brahmanas elaboration of instructions for rituals from earlier Vedas
The Brahmanas were mainly an elaboration of instructions regarding rituals that were contained in the earlier Vedas, but the Aranyakas and Upanishads heralded new developments within Hinduism.

Aranyakas “forest books”
Perform Vedic rituals in symbolic ways by forest-dwelling ascetics. Called “the forest books,” the Aranyakas describe how Vedic rituals can be performed in symbolic ways by forest-dwelling ascetics. This alerts us to the fact that, by the time of the Aranyakas, there were some Hindus seeking spiritual perfection through ascetic practices like living outdoors, practicing silence, and restricting their diets.

Aranyakas Called “the forest books,” the Aranyakas describe how Vedic rituals can be performed in symbolic ways by forest-dwelling ascetics. This alerts us to the fact that, by the time of the Aranyakas, there were some Hindus seeking spiritual perfection through ascetic practices like living outdoors, practicing silence, and restricting their diets.

Transition: Vedas to Upanishads
The Upanishads appear at the end of the Vedic tradition at around the 6th Century BCE. Important in philosophical development More than one

Upanishads Upanishads show shift from Formative to Speculative Period.
Upanishads are most philosophical and metaphysical. written in the form of dialogues (like Socratic dialogues). Explore nature of universe, role of individual, goal of life. philosophical core of modern Hinduism is from Upanishads. At this time, Hinduism was interacting with Buddhism. This influenced the directions Hinduism developed.

Chāndogya & Brihadāranyaka Upanishads
These two Upanishads (numbers 9 and 10) explain Vedanta philosophy (reading from Chāndogya)

From the Chandogya Upanishad
Let the Master teach me more; said he. Let it be so, dear; said he. As the honey-makers, dear, gather the honey from many a tree, and weld the nectars together in a single nectar; and as they find no separateness there, nor say: Of that tree I am the nectar, of that tree I am the nectar. Thus, indeed, dear, all these beings, when they reach the Real, know not, nor say: We have reached the Real. But whatever they are here, whether tiger or lion or wolf or boar or worm or moth or gnat or fly, that they become again. And this soul is the Self of all that is, this is the Real, this the Self. That thou art, O Shvetaketu.

Chandogya Upanishad In a hermitage deep in the forest lived the learned sage, Uddalaka Aruni with his son Shvetketu. When Shvetketu came of age, his father sent him to an Ashram for his education as was customary in those days. When Shvetketu returned home after twelve years of education, Uddalaka asked him, "What did you learn while in the Ashram, my son?" "I learned everything that can be known, father," Shvetketu answered. When he heard this, Uddalaka became silent and thought, "What pride! Such conceit is born only out of ignorance. My son has not yet grasped the essence of the supreme knowledge of Brahman which brings humility." Shvetketu observed the change that came over his father and inquired, "Why did you become so quiet, father?"

Chandogya Upanishad "Dear son," replied Uddalaka, "You say that you know everything that can be known. Then you must know that knowledge or wisdom by which what is unknown becomes known and what is unseen becomes seen?" "No, I don’t," replied Shvetketu. "But please, father, tell me about it." Uddalaka lovingly said, "Well son, look at those pots and toys. They are made of clay. The potter takes a lump of clay and makes all kinds of different shapes out of it. So by knowing one lump of clay, one can know everything that is made of clay!" "This is true for everything, son," continued Uddalaka, "If you know the fundamental structure of gold, you will also know all the ornaments made out of it. If you know a piece of iron, you know all the utensils made of iron." To make things clearer for his son, Uddalaka headed towards the river while continuing his conversation, "Therefore, my child, you must get to know the essence of all things, the One that exists in everything in this Universe, the great power of Brahman."

Chandogya Upanishad "It is that same power which guides the river from the hills to flow into the ocean. That power then causes the water in the ocean to evaporate and form clouds which will produce rain to replenish the river, thus completing the cycle." Pointing towards a tree which was chopped down by a woodcutter, Uddalaka said, "Take for example that tree over there. The sap, which is it’s life and enabled it to draw sustenance from the earth, is leaking out of it." "Can you tell that one of the branches of the tree is dead?" questioned Uddalaka. "Each branch of that tree if deprived of the sap, which is it’s life, will dry up. And when the entire tree is drained of the sap, the whole tree will die." While Uddalaka and Shvetketu were talking, they saw a dead body carried by a group of people for cremation. Uddalaka pointed towards the dead body and spoke to his son, "Similarly, my son, when life forsakes the body, the body dies, but the life itself does not die." The son looked puzzled when Uddalaka explained, "My son, that which does not die is called the Atman and you are that Atman. The Atman is all pervasive and is present in everything that you see, living or nonliving."

Chandogya Upanishad "Why can’t I see this Atman which is all pervasive and in everything?" Asked Shvetketu. To explain this, Uddalaka asked his son to bring a fruit which was hanging from a Banyan tree (a tree common in India which gives plenty of shade and bears small fruits). Shvetketu picked a fruit from the tree and brought it to his father. "Break it, son, and look inside," suggested Uddalaka. "What do you see?" Uddalaka questioned. "Tiny seeds, father," replied Shvetketu. "Do you see anything inside?" asked Uddalaka. "No! There is nothing there" responded Shvetketu. "If there is nothing inside," said Uddalaka, "Then how can that tiny seed gives rise to this huge Banyan tree? That, Shvetketu, is the Atman, the essence of all things. The Atman pervades the universe, and, my son, you are a part of that universe."

Chandogya Upanishad "Well father, if we cannot see the essence, how do we know that it exists?" said Shvetketu with a puzzled mind. "I shall explain that to you, my son" affirmed Uddalaka. "First put some water in that pitcher." "Now bring some salt and put the salt in the water," instructed the father. Shvetketu did as his father asked. "Keep the pitcher aside for now," said Uddalaka, "And bring it to me tomorrow morning." Early the next morning, Shvetketu went to his father with the pitcher of water. "Can you see the salt?" asked Uddalaka. Shvetketu searched, and of course, the salt was no longer visible. Shvetketu said, "No, father, it must be dissolved in the water." "Now taste it from the top," instructed Uddalaka. Shvetketu dipped his finger into the water and tasted the water from the top. "It is salty," Shvetketu said. "Now taste the water from the bottom," said Uddalaka. "It’s salty there too, father" answered Shvetketu. "Similarly, Shvetketu, as you cannot see the salt, you cannot see the essence. But it is always present everywhere."

Chandogya Upanishad Finally Uddalaka concluded, "My son, this omnipresent essence is called the Atman, which pervades everything. You too are that, Oh Shvetketu." "I am grateful father," said Shvetketu and touched his father’s feet. "You have helped me gain the knowledge with which the unknown becomes known, the unseen becomes seen." The father then blessed his son.

Let the Master teach me more; said he. Let it be so, dear; said he. These eastern rivers, dear, roll eastward; and the western, westward. From the ocean to the ocean they go, and in the ocean they are united. And there they know no separateness, nor say: This am I, this am I. Thus indeed, dear, all these beings, coming forth from the Real, know not, nor say: We have come from the Real. And whatever they are here, whether tiger or lion or wolf or boar or worm or moth or gnat or fly or whatever they are, that they become again. And that soul is the Self of all that is, this is the Real, this the Self. That thou art, O Shvetaketu. Let the Master teach me more; said he. Let it be so, dear; said he. These eastern rivers, dear, roll eastward; and the western, westward. From the ocean to the ocean they go, and in the ocean they are united. And there they know no separateness, nor say: This am I, this am I. Thus indeed, dear, all these beings, coming forth from the Real, know not, nor say: We have come from the Real. And whatever they are here, whether tiger or lion or wolf or boar or worm or moth or gnat or fly or whatever they are, that they become again. And that soul is the Self of all that is, this is the Real, this the Self. That thou art, O Shvetaketu.

Bring me a fruit of that fig-tree. Here is the fruit, Master. Divide it into two; said he. I have divided it, Master. What do you see in it? said he. Atom-like seeds, Master. Divide one of them in two; said he. I see nothing at all, Master. So he said to him: That soul that you perceive not at all, dear,—from that very soul the great fig-tree comes forth. Believe then, dear, that this soul is the Self of all that is, this is the Real, this the Self. That thou art, O Shvetaketu. Let the Master teach me more; said he. Let it be so, dear; said he. Bring me a fruit of that fig-tree. Here is the fruit, Master. Divide it into two; said he. I have divided it, Master. What do you see in it? said he. Atom-like seeds, Master. Divide one of them in two; said he. I see nothing at all, Master. So he said to him: That soul that you perceive not at all, dear,—from that very soul the great fig-tree comes forth. Believe then, dear, that this soul is the Self of all that is, this is the Real, this the Self. That thou art, O Shvetaketu. Let the Master teach me more; said he. Let it be so, dear; said he.

Vedas compared to Upanishads
From ritual action (karman)  meaning/knowledge (jñāna) From external  internal From material  Immaterial From senses  not-sensed world From ritual action (karman) to meaning/knowledge (jñāna) How  why. Transmit chants to next generation. Don’t say ritual has any benefit. From external to internal It’s your own inner mind that needs purification. From Material  Immaterial They seek what is immortal (does not decay) Upanishad creation myth: Death created the material world to feed itself. From senses to the not-sensed world Suspicious of senses: easily corrupted, prone to be tricked.

The Six Senses In Indian Thought: 6 senses (the usual 5 plus mind/ego)
Ego/mind will die, along with other senses; it coordinates the others. The 6 senses can only lead you to knowledge of the material, which is not the knowledge the Upanishads say you need.

What is this immortality?
The Ātman: Tricky to describe: the ‘true self’, not subject to death and change. Not part of the material world; cannot be sensed. The part of us that keeps going after we die. ‘soul’ is a bad translation ‘soul’ carries connotations from Christianity that do not apply to Hinduism: ātman is not individual.

Brahman The “real” or the “existent”.
Atmans are ultimately Brahman (not Brahmin=the priestly caste) This is the special knowledge: there is no difference. Brahman is the essence/core of things. How to describe this with language? Does the atman become Brahman? No, it is Brahman all along. Clay pot, bowl, ladle – what is this? Just clay. All the same. Open the seed of the tree.

The Goal The goal is an experience / direct knowledge that the Atman is the same as Brahman. Based on this awareness of Atman and Brahman comes the idea that differences in the physical world are not ultimately real. The realization of Atman/Brahman is described as merging into oneness (as nectar is collected from this flower and that) where all ego and distinctions are lost. This is understood to be an experience of immortality beyond a state of the senses.

Summary: Samsara and moksha
Brahman, the all-pervading reality, could be known from within as the subtle self or soul, atman. cycle of death and rebirth known as samsara, in which the atman is continually reborn according to the results of one’s actions, or karma. to escape this cycle of death and rebirth and attain moksha, liberation from samsara.

Summary: Upanishads Upanishads show shift from Formative to Speculative Period. Upanishads are most philosophical and metaphysical. written in the form of dialogues (like Socratic dialogues). Explore nature of universe, role of individual, goal of life. philosophical core of modern Hinduism is from Upanishads. At this time, Hinduism was interacting with Buddhism. This influenced the directions Hinduism developed.

Useful books on the Vedas, Vedic Period, and the Upanishads
Upaniṣads, translated by Patrick Olivelle. Stephanie Jamison, The Ravenous Hyenas and the Wounded Sun: Myth and Ritual in Ancient India. Straightforward 60-page introduction. The Rig Veda: An Anthology. Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty Frits Staal on Agni (a 1975 reenactment: photos). Altar of Fire

The Hindu Epics and their teachings
Mahabharata Ramayana

The Epics world-affirming did not die out. 200 BCE - 200 CE
2 long legends about interactions gods, goddesses, and (royal) heroes Some parts say life is suffering But mainly world-affirming attitude. Message: humans can be part of a divine plan The world-affirming aspect of Hinduism did not die out. The epics, composed between 200 BCE and 200 CE, are two lengthy series of legends reporting the interactions between gods, goddesses, and human heroes (usually of royal stock). Though there are clear passages that regard life as suffering, the epics have tended toward a more world-affirming attitude. Among other things, the epics show how humans can be part of a divine plan.

Epics Two main epics, but many versions (in Sanskrit, in vernacular languages such as Hindi and Bengali) The Ramayana – the story of King Rāmā, also a deity The Mahābhārata – the story of the 5 “Pandava” brothers – princes, warring against their cousins, “Kauravas” for the kingdom.

Ramayana on Dharma first Hindu epic: legends Rama (royal military hero) and his wife, Sita. world-affirming attitude of Vedic religion: Rama as an exemplary ruler. Kidnapping of Sita by Ravana The god Rama and the monkey king Hanuman fight the demon king Ravana in the climax The first Hindu epic: legends of a royal military hero, Rama, and his wife, Sita. world-affirming attitude of Vedic religion, portraying Rama as an exemplary ruler. Kidnapping of Sita by Ravana The god Rama and the monkey king Hanuman fight the demon king Ravana in the climax

Ramayana do duty keep word Rama destined to inherit throne.
mother of one of Rama’s younger brothers insisted that her son, Bharata, become king. King owed Bharata’s mother a boon King exiled Rama from the kingdom for 14 years. After father’s death, Bharata came to Rama and begged him to take the throne. Rama insisted on remaining in exile Political considerations and personal desires could not make Rama break promise. archetypal follower of dharma, social duty determination to do his duty and keep his word. As the first-born son of King Dashratha, Rama was destined to inherit the throne. mother of one of his younger brothers insisted that her son, Bharata, become king. King owed Bharata’s mother a boon, and could not refuse her request. King exiled Rama from the kingdom for 14 years. After father’s death, Bharata came to Rama and begged him to take the throne. Rama, displaying his profound respect for duty, remained in exile. Political considerations and personal desires could not make Rama break a promise. Rama emerges as the archetypal follower of dharma, or social duty.

The Mahābhārata The story of the 5 “Pandava” brothers.
Princes, warring against their cousins “Kauravas” for the kingdom. The Bhaghavad Gītā is a small section of this epic. “The Song of the Lord” (Gita=song; Bhagavat=lord) not really “Bible” of Hinduism, but one of most important texts part of 5th book of Mahabhārata – just before the battle between the cousins. Many interpretations: Gandhi: non-violence; others (e.g., Tilak): violence against British oppression. Told by “Sanjay” Sanjaya to Dhritarashtra, who is the blind king of the Kauravas. The story of the 5 “Pandava” brothers. Princes, warring against their cousins “Kauravas” for the kingdom. The Bhaghavad Gītā is a small section of this epic. “The Song of the Lord” (Gita=song; Bhagavat=lord) The Gita is not really the “Bible” of Hinduism, but may look on it as one of the most important texts. It is part of the 5th book of the Mahabhārata – just before the massive battle between the cousins. Many interpretations: Gandhi: non-violence; others (e.g., Tilak): violence against British oppression. Told by “Sanjay” Sanjaya to Dhritarashtra, who is the blind king of the Kauravas.

Bhagavad Gita The real story is about Arjuna, 2nd Pandava brother.
Key ingredient in the war. Fights from a chariot, so he needs a charioteer: “Kṛṣṇa” Arjuna thinks Krishna is a human king (he’s in disguise). Actually, in this text, he’s the supreme deity. Shiva, Durga, Brahman are the supreme deity in other texts.

Video: from Vedas to Epics

Basic Doctrines of the Gita 1
Refer to discourse 1 of the Bhagavad Gita (beginning with verse 26) Why doesn’t Arjuna want to fight? Refer to discourse 2 of the Bhagavad Gita What is Arjuna’s “dharma”? What determines one’s rebirth? How does Krishna try to persuade Arjuna that he wouldn’t really be killing anyone? Dilemma: 1:26-47 Dharma: Karma: 2.27 Atman:

Why doesn’t Arjuna want to fight?
Dilemma: 1:26-47 Dharma: Karma: 2.27 Atman: Fruits of action: 2.47 “noble truths”: No-self comes to peace: 2.71

Basic Doctrines of the Gita
Dharma: right action / right doing Some translators call it “sacred duty” or “just duty”. BG : Arjuna’s duty is to fight, since he is a warrior. Dharma is related to varṇa (caste) To not do Dharma is to perform adharma – wrong actions. Dharma shastras (texts on dharma) say: it is better to do one’s own duty poorly than to do someone else’s better than they. Dilemma: 1:26-47 Dharma: Karma: 2.27 Atman: Fruits of action: 2.47 “noble truths”: No-self comes to peace: 2.71

Arjuna’s Dilemma The cousins have the same gurus
Most of them are fighting with the Kauravas. Arjuna’s duty is to fight; also, he is the best warrior of the Pandavas. If he doesn’t fight, his family will lose. Arjuna suspects it is wrong to kill his childhood friends, cousins, and especially gurus (like killing your own father). He’s damned both ways – following duty. Arjuna’s response is non-action. But non-action doesn’t exist. Krishna says inaction is an action – He must act, and there are ways to act without gaining (bad) karma. Krishna shows himself as supreme deity and that human souls (jivas) can attain moksha. Notes on the Gita Ghandi: BG says all is Krishna, so lower castes are holy, too. Krishna becomes the charioteer for the Pandavas; the Kauravas get his army.

Basic Doctrines 2 Karma Samsāra
The word itself isn’t prominent in the text, but the concept is. A system of rewards and punishments for certain actions. R & P can last over several lifetimes Samsāra The constant cycle of birth, death, rebirth and so on; “reincarnation” The state of one’s rebirth is dependent on one’s karma (BG 2.27) You’re worried about killing your relatives? You’re thinking the short view – look at the Grand Scheme of things. There are rebirths galore!

Basic Doctrines 3 Moksha Atman/Jiva (Upanishadic ideas in the Gita)
“Liberation” (Samsara is not a good thing; it’s not immortality; it’s multi-mortality) Samsara is ruled by death; moksha is an escape from it to immortality. As in the Upanishads, moksha is brought about through some sort of transforming knowledge/ wisdom. Atman/Jiva (Upanishadic ideas in the Gita) Krishna tells Arjuna that each person has an atman which cannot be killed, and which is beyond human perception – hence he argues that Arjuna will not really kill anyone in this battle. (BG 2:11-25) whereas atma refers to "the cosmic self", jiva is used to denote an individual 'living entity' or 'living being' specifically

Jiva and Atman In addition to Atman, each person has an individual soul that is theirs alone. This is called their jiva. This soul has many characteristics that distinguish it from other souls, that make it unique to an individual person. One’s jiva is like the proverbial snowflake: each one different from every other one. Atman is not like this: my Atman is exactly the same as your Atman, and Atman in either you or me is Brahman. What part of an individual is reincarnated over and over again? Obviously, it is not one’s body. Is it one’s soul? If the consequences of one’s actions follow one into subsequent lives, they must be carried in the jiva, or individual soul. Atman, equivalent to Brahman, is immune to the effects of karma.

Ways to attain Moksha There are several ways to attain moksha, to act to improve karma by doing dharma and not adharma: (“yoga” comes from a root meaning “join.” Here it means “path.”) Karma yoga: unselfish action Jnana yoga: transforming knowledge Bhakti yoga: devotion brings forgiveness Raja yoga: meditation Hatha yoga: postures

Karma yoga: “the path of (unselfish) action”
Do your dharma without any thought or attachment to the rewards or punishments those actions might bring. Karma is thought to be connected to desire. If one acts without a desire for the fruits of action, one can act without gaining (bad) karma. This takes effort, and training to learn. In the context of reincarnation, karma is the consequences of one’s choices. In the context of yoga, one’s karma is one’s duty, the path in life prescribed by one’s social station. need not retire from all worldly pursuits and become a wandering monk to attain moksha. lead exactly the sort of life society expects one to lead. use worldly duties almost as a meditation technique to keep attention focused not on the actions themselves, but on Brahman.

Jñāna yoga: “the path of knowledge / transforming wisdom”
Scriptural knowledge and “true” understanding can destroy karma and lead to release/moksha. “the fire of knowledge will reduce karma to ashes” study of Hindu scriptures (of which there are enough to last a lifetime!) and philosophical contemplation of the central principles of Hinduism. particularly appropriate for priests (originally of the brahmin caste) and intellectuals.

Bhakti yoga “the path of devotion”
This path becomes dominant for the next centuries Krishna will forgive karma in return for complete devotion Example: the poems by Mirabai She is a Bhakta devotee of Krishna “married” to Krishna Just as one may lose all thought of self when deeply in love with another person, one can lose all thought of self through devotion to a particular god or goddess. Self drops away in the ecstatic experience of worship of the god or goddess until, ultimately, one becomes joined with him or her.

Raja Yoga Raja yoga (“royal” yoga) was developed in the early centuries of the first millennium CE by a teacher and philosopher named Patanjali. Raja yoga is composed of eight “limbs” or practices directed toward preparing for and engaging in meditation. • Self-control (yama), • Observance (niyama), • Posture (asana), • Breath control (pranayama), • Restraint (pratyahara), • Steadying the mind (dharana), • Meditation (dhyana), and • Enlightenment (samadhi). It is a technique of guiding thought that ultimately leads to Brahman-consciousness or liberation.

Hatha Yoga physical postures popular in the West.
developed out of raja yoga. At first, the only asana, or posture, was full lotus. an extremely stable posture that holds the back in good alignment. However, it can also leave one stiff and sore. Asanas (postures) other than full lotus were first developed as a means of stretching out the body after long periods of sitting meditation in full lotus. Eventually this series of postures and associated breathing techniques became its own form of yoga. careful practice of these physical positions will still the mind and allow it to focus on the only true reality, Brahman.

To remember The Hindu Epics and their teachings
The Ramayana: The history of King Rāmā, also a deity importance of dharma The Mahābhārata: The story of the 5 “Pandava” brothers, Basic Doctrines of the Bhagavad Gita Dharma: right action / right doing Arjuna must act; Krishna tells him there are ways to act without gaining (bad) karma. Karma: rewards and punishments for certain actions. Samsāra: The constant cycle of birth, death, rebirth; “reincarnation” Moksha: “Liberation” (Samsara is multi-mortality) Atman/Jiva: spirit/soul cannot be killed

Caste System: 4 varnas From earliest times, Hinduism divided people into classes into which individuals are born and from which they can never escape. division into 3 classes also in other Indo-European languages besides Sanskrit. Theory: Aryan invaders claimed the top three castes, and made the indigenous the lower castes. caste dictates what employment, whom to marry, and social status. caste involved contact taboos (who can touch whom without getting “polluted”).

The Varna System Varna (“class”) system: impractical
Not a significant issue in the Vedas (“varna” not mentioned in Rigveda ). Mentioned in the Manu Smriti (मनुस्मृति ) (200BCE-200CE) Brahmins (teachers, scholars and priests), Kshatriyas (kings and warriors), Vaishyas (traders), Shudras (agriculturists, service providers, and some artisan groups). From earliest times, Hinduism divided people into classes into which individuals are born and from which they can never escape. division into 3 classes also in other Indo-European languages besides Sanskrit. Theory: Aryan invaders claimed the top three castes, and made the indigenous the lower castes. caste dictates what employment, whom to marry, and social status. caste involved contact taboos (who can touch whom without getting “polluted”).

Class System: Untouchables
Besides these 4, the “untouchables” (25%) were completely beneath the caste system. did polluting work, such as cleaning toilets or tanning hides. Gandhi insisted on calling the untouchables “harijan,” or “children of God.” Today they call themselves as “dalit,” or “oppressed peoples.” Discrimination against untouchables illegal since 1947. However, the caste system lingers on even today. Many Indians marry within their caste and observe contact taboos. Caste often disregarded in urban areas, but persists in rural parts.

The Jati System: the working caste system
Jati means real working community of birth, marriages, of profession, culture and religion (closer to the widely (mis)understood meaning of caste; varna, however, means the social rank, status, order (closer to class). Jati (“caste”): Hair-cutters Stone masons Priests Land workers Jatis can be closed Hard to enforce in rural settings. Now it is illegal to discriminate.

Caste in Hinduism For modern Hindus, cast is not very relevant, especially in North America. Most are not prepared to enforce it / live by it. Caste is a cultural expression Not just Hindus in India; other religious groups live by it, to some extent. Social Elitism is not India’s problem alone (compare the English class system) The British showed hypocrisy in their critiques of caste, when they practised something similar.

Brahma Creator Not the same as Brahman (with an n, ultimate reality)
Vahana: swan 4 heads, 4 arms, and a reddish complexion

Saraswati Goddess of knowledge, music, and the arts Vahana: swan
wife of Brahma sits on a white lotus playing a veena

Viṣṇu (Vishnu) Supporter of Dharma / order.
He appears when order is threatened. Appeared in 10 avatars traditionally (but there’s not one straightforward list) Important ones: Krishna (from the BG) Vishnu, the preserver of Dharma Rama (from the Ramāyana) Vamana (a dwarf) Varaha (a boar) There is a huge body of literature on Vishnu’s various avatars. Devotees of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas.

Vishnu iconography Vishnu is theoretically shapeless and omnipresent. However, he is traditionally represented as follows: A four-armed male-form Blue skin He has the mark of sage Bhrigu's feet on his chest. on his chest is the srivatsa mark, symbolising his consort Lakshmi. Around his neck, the jewel in which Lakshmi dwells, and a garland of flowers. A crown symbolizes his supreme authority. two earrings represent inherent opposites in creation He rests on Ananta the infinite snake

Vishnu holds four attributes:
A conch represents creating and maintaining the universe. The discus symbolizes the purified spiritualized mind. A mace symbolizes all spiritual, mental and physical strength. A lotus represents spiritual liberation

Vishnu and Lakshmi

Lakshmi Vishnu’s main consort Goddess of wealth and good fortune
Two arms up holding lotuses (need a lot of water) Right hand: money Standing on a lotus Elephant: pouring water

Shiva The divine yogi Vishnu is to dharma as Shiva is to moksha
Ascetics, renunciants, yoga & meditation Vahana: bull

Shiva Trident: emblem of Shiva Snake around neck 3rd eye
Ganges flowing out of his head In Himalayas Off by himself Prayer beads (did this idea come to Catholicism from India?) Loincloth Pot for begging

Parvati (Uma) Shiva’s consort Divine Mother
Has many forms (Durga, Kali) (a second consort, Ganga, is the Ganges) Vahana: lion

Shiva with family Mountains White Shiva Bull Wife on lion
Elephant-headed son 6-headed son Threaded human heads

Skanda / Murugan The first son of Shiva and Parvati God of war
The army general of the Gods Vahana: peacock

Ganesha 2nd son of Shiva & Parvati Very popular
God of the intellect, and can remove obstacles Vahana: mouse

Shiva as Nataraj Lord of the Dance
The images originate in south of India Shiva as lord of creation His dance has 108 steps which bring about the creation, maintenance, and destruction of the world Hand: stop – remove fear Fire Cycle of creation-destruction Hand pointing to foot (pure) Standing on a dwarf, symbolizing ignorance

Lingam The aniconic form of Shiva At most Hindu temples
Usually placed in a yoni – a concave object

Hindu Goddesses Devī = “Goddess” – a generic title
The concept of Śakti – a creative, potent power all deities need to carry out their various functions. This is a feminine thing, so when it is personified, it is as a goddess. All deities need shakti Vishnu needs Shakti to incarnate himself. So gods “always” have consorts, to provide it. Devotees of the Goddess(es) are called Śāktas.

Multiple ideals of the “Divine Feminine”
There’s not just 1 goddess. Mā: prehistoric? Ideal mother, big breasted, broad hipped, fertility

Sītā: the ideal wife (of Rama in the Ramayana)
Loyal, domestic

Rādhā Rādhā: the ideal lover – a gopi, with romantic affairs with Krishna Theological idea behind the obsessive love & desire to be with Krishna

Durga: the ideal warrior
Pan-Indian, but more so in North-Eastern (Bengal) As Mahishamardini (Destroyer of the Buffalo Demon), in the Devīmāhātmya.

Devī Māhātmya A demon has practised meditation, austerities, yoga, etc. and gets so much tapas (religious energy/heat) from it that the gods are afraid he will scorch the world. So he is granted a boon – immortality In Puranic Hinduism, the Gods have immortality Brahma grants that he can’t be killed by a male. The demon then fights the gods, wins, their force pools up together, and forms Durga: the sum of the gods’ shakti power Here, she takes male power, and uses it as she pleases. The demons fall for her because she is so beautiful, and as soon as they let their guard down, she lops off their heads!

Durga Lion vahana Buffalo demon

Durga Durga rules over Maya “illusion / delusion; the world of difference” Don’t be fooled, like the demons, by the world of illusion. A point of devotion: she responds to it. Finally, Durga is Brahman. Other gods are bubbles in the ocean – they pop. The ocean is Durga. All else comes out of her and is temporary.

Kali Goddess of time and death Vahana: donkey
usually portrayed as dark and violent

Kālī The ideal mother and ideal destroyer
Another Pan-Indian goddess, with a focus in Bengal. Somewhat ferocious! Poems to Kali: Build up the goddess in your own mind. Dishevelled severed heads around neck Bluish Naked Blood-smeared Fangs

Kali The poems to Kali ask you to think. They make you question physical appearance. In the Devi Mahatmya, Durga creates goddesses to fight for her. Kali is created out of Durga’s anger. Durga licks up the blood which was spilled, created new demons. Blood was polluting – great aversion. But – there’s a great deal of power. If you are not disgusted by what others consider disgusting, maybe you’ve overcome this world of maya.

Identify the Deity

Hinduism Video 0:22-0:33 10. What is the role of astrology in Hinduism? 11. What is the significance of the Ganges River in Hinduism? 12. Which day of the week is traditionally considered the Hindu Sabbath? 13. Where did the term“Hinduism” originate and when?

Video: Hinduism

Review: Main Hindu Deities
Krishna: cares about humanity Viṣṇu (Vishnu): Supporter of Dharma / order. 10 avatars Lakshmi: Goddess of wealth and good fortune Shiva: The divine yogi Parvati: Shiva’s consort Skanda: The army general of the Gods Ganesha: Can remove obstacles Shiva as Nataraj: Lord of the Dance Linga: aniconic form of Shiva

Bhakti Poems Mirabai: a poet devoted to Krishna
Kamalakanta: a poet devoted to Kali Being devoted is good, according to the poems Why be a devotee? Mira: I can’t help it. Is life better? poem 84; 27; 193. Kali Poem 57; 120; 43. Shiva poem 133; 143 Compare Cathurvedi 186 with BG

Krishna Krishna insists he has a great love for humanity and he rewards those who love him back. Indra doesn’t act this way. He doesn’t come to help you in time of need. Maybe Agni would; or he/it might just burn you. Krishna provides a different relation between human and divine. The Bhagavad Gita makes it less abstract, more personal.

Poem of Mirabai (Caturvedi, no. 27)
Sister, I had a dream that I wed the Lord of those who live in need: Five hundred sixty thousand people came and the Lord of Braj was the groom. In dream they set up a wedding arch; in dream he grasped my hand; in dream he led me around the wedding fire and I became unshakably his bride. Mira's been granted her mountain lifting Lord: from living past lives, a prize.

Mahadevi themes in the poems to Kali
Many poems present Kali as the Great Goddess The creator, preserver, and destroyer Over Maya (illusion) Is Brahman (songs 10 & 11). Kali is the essence in things.

Poem of Kamalakanta (Śyāmā Sangīt 150)
Mother, You are always finding ways to amuse yourself. Shyama, you stream of nectar, Through your deluding power You forge a horrible face And adorn yourself with a necklace Of human skulls. The earth quakes under your leaps and bounds You are frightful With that sword in your hand. At other times You take a flirtatious pose, And then even the God of Love is outdone, Mother! Your form is inconceivable and undecaying. You are beyond the three qualities And yet composed of them. You are terrifying, You are death, You are a beautiful woman. Thus assuming various forms, You fulfil the wishes of your worshipers. Sometimes you even dance, Brahman, Eternal One, In the lotus heart of Kamalakanta. Mother, You are always finding ways to amuse yourself. Shyama, you stream of nectar, Through your deluding power You forge a horrible face And adorn yourself with a necklace Of human skulls. The earth quakes under your leaps and bounds You are frightful With that sword in your hand. At other times You take a flirtatious pose, And then even the God of Love is outdone, Mother! Your form is inconceivable and undecaying. You are beyond the three qualities And yet composed of them. You are terrifying, You are death, You are a beautiful woman. Thus assuming various forms, You fulfil the wishes of your worshipers. Sometimes you even dance, Brahman, Eternal One, In the lotus heart of Kamalakanta.

Tantra and Kali Are closely connected.
Many Tantrics are devoted to Kali, especially the devotion called Dakshinakali. Kali dancing on Shiva. I will lie on the battlefield on which she is dancing. When she realizes who I am, she will stop dancing (on me). This is also a tantric image (Tantra: anything non-Vedic) Right-handed Tantra: non-Vedic mantras, pujas; Left-handed Tantra: impropriety. Joining polar opposites. Much of this is through impure things.

Four Stages (Ashramas) of Life
yoga is time-consuming. a balance between the world-denying, pursuit of liberation and world-affirming social conservatism by prescribing different forms of spiritual practice for different life stages, or ashramas. Four life stages (ashramas) have are appropriate for upper-caste men (and sometimes their wives): student (brahmacharin) householder (grihastha) retiree (vanaprastha) renunciate (sannyasin) All forms of yoga are time-consuming. Karma yoga is unique in prescribing life in the world as a path to liberation. With the other yogas, Hinduism achieves a balance between its world-denying, liberation-pursuing side and its world-affirming, socially-conservative side by prescribing different forms of spiritual practice for different life stages, or ashramas. Four life stages (ashramas) have traditionally been considered appropriate for upper-caste men (and sometimes their wives): • student (brahmacharin), • householder (grihastha), • retiree (vanaprastha), and • renunciate (sannyasin). As a student, a young man is expected to study the Vedas and lay a religious foundation for his life. This corresponds to jnana yoga. As a householder, it is his duty to marry, have children, and work in a vocation. This corresponds to karma yoga. Traditionally, when a man has grandchildren or his hair turns gray, he becomes a retiree. He may then concentrate on spiritual pursuits again, as he did when he was a student.

Sannyasin final stage: renunciate
man abandons family ties and positions subsists by begging lives a nomadic life loses all strictures and privileges of caste freed from all attachments, single-mindedly pursues moksha most Hindus never become renunciates. Example: Swami Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada take worship of Krishna to the West. final stage in the ideal Hindu four-staged life: renunciate a man abandons family ties and positions subsists by begging lives a nomadic life loses all strictures and privileges of caste freed from all attachments, he can single-mindedly pursue moksha or liberation. Most Hindus do not follow the four stages precisely. most Hindus never become renunciates. But the option is available, and it is highly respected. For example, Swami Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada was a businessman in India during the householder phase of his life. His guru told him that he should become a sannyasin when he retired and take the worship of Krishna to the West. This is just what he did, founding the International Society of Krishna Consciousness.

Schools of Hindu Philosophy
Several influential schools of Hindu philosophy have developed and remain paths within Hinduism today. Samkhya philosophy developed by Patanjali, regards prakriti, the world we sense, as a figment in the imagination of purusha (pure consciousness), sustained only by the “turnings of thought.” Advaita Vedanta advanced by Shankara rejects the dualism of purusha and prakriti and regards Brahman as the only reality. modified by thinkers such as Ramanuja to allow for a degree of difference between humans and gods necessary for bhakti yoga. Tantric Hinduism provides “shock therapy” techniques to achieve moksha quickly while living in the very degenerate kaliyuga age. Also : Nyaya: knowledge Yoga: meditation Vaisheshika: atomism

Time Line review 1500 BCE: Rig Veda 1100-800: Age of Karman
600: Upanishads 400 BCE-400CE: Epic Hinduism 500CE- Classical and Puranical Hinduism Voluminous texts in Sanskrit and vernacular languages Collections about and stories of how gods preferred to be worshipped, where they like to be worshipped, and why.

Hinduism video 9. What are the Hindu stages of life that a man should expect to pass through in his lifetime in the pursuit of spiritual fulfillment? 10. What is the role of astrology in Hinduism? (0:22) 11. What is the significance of the Ganges River in Hinduism? (0:23) 12. Which day of the week is traditionally considered the Hindu Sabbath? 13. Where did the term“Hinduism” originate and when? 14. What are some of the major contributions made to Hinduism by such modern thinkers as Ram Mohun Roy or Bal Gangadhar Tilak? (0:35) 15. What are the most important effects that Gandhi had on modern Hinduism? (0:38) 16. Why did Gandhi use the tactic of nonviolence against British rule in India?

Hinduism Video 0:29-0:45

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Chapter 3: Hinduism.

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