1. Chapter 3 Atoms and Elements

2. Understanding the Macroscopic World
The connection between the microscopic atom and the macroscopic element is the key to understanding the chemical world.

3. Atoms Atoms are incredibly small.
An atom is the smallest identifiable unit of an element.
Similarities and differences on the atomic scale correlate with similarities and differences on the macroscopic scale.

4. Atoms

5. Protons Determine the Element
The atomic number, Z, represents the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
The charge of a proton is assigned numerical value of +1.
An amu is a unit of mass equivalent to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 nucleus and is equivalent to 1.66 × g.
Protons constitute a significant part of the mass of an atom.
The mass of a proton is 1.0 amu.

6. Concept Check 2.1
The graphite in a pencil and the gemstone diamond are composed entirely of pure carbon atoms. Even though these substances appear and behave very differently, what about the nucleus do these carbon atoms have in common that identify them as carbon?

7. Concept Check 2.1 Solution
Diamonds and graphite are composed of carbon atoms with six protons in the nucleus.
It is the number of protons in the nucleus that determine an element’s identity.

8. Chemical Symbols
Symbols are an abbreviation of the chemical name which can be based on:
The English name for the element: hydrogen  H
The Greek or Latin name: ferrum (iron)  Fe
Their place of discovery: europium  Eu
The scientist honored by the naming: curium  Cm

9. Periodic Table of Elements

10. Electrons
A neutral atom has as many electrons outside its nucleus as protons within its nucleus.
Opposing charges of protons and electrons hold electrons within a spherical region surrounding the nucleus.
Atoms can lose and gain one or more electrons.

11. Determining Protons and Electrons

12. Concept Check 3.2
How many protons and electrons are in the Li+ ion?

13. Concept Check 3.2 Solution
Lithium (Li) has an atomic number of 3, therefore it has a 3 protons in its nucleus.
A nucleus with 3 protons (1+ charge each) has a charge of 3+. Neutral Li needs needs 3 electrons outside of the nucleus (1− charge each) for a total charge of 3− resulting in a neutral atom.
Li+ ion has 3 protons in the nucleus and 2 electrons outside of the nucleus for a total charge of 1+.

14. Neutrons
Neutrons are nearly the same mass as protons but carry no electrical charge.
The number of neutrons in the atoms of an element can vary resulting in ISOTOPES.
Can be naturally occurring or man-made
The sum of neutrons and protons in an atom is called the mass number (A) of the atom.
Carbon-13 isotope

15. How Many Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons?
Decoding an element’s symbol:
mass number = sum of protons + sum of neutrons
atomic number = number of protons
number of neutrons = A – Z
Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
where
Z is the the atomic number
A is the mass number
C is the charge
X is the symbol of the element

16. Concept Check 3.3 There are three isotopes of the element hydrogen:
How many protons, electrons, and neutrons are in each isotope of hydrogen?

17. Concept Check 3.3 Solution
Each isotope of hydrogen has an atomic number of 1, and therefore has 1 proton in the nucleus and the neutral atoms have 1 electron outside the nucleus.
Subtracting the atomic number from the mass number gives the number of neutrons in each isotope.

18. Concept Check 3.4
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in the following radioactive ion of potassium:

19. Concept Check 3.4 Solution
protons = Z = 19
neutrons = A – Z = 40 – 19 = 21
electrons = Z – C = 19 – 1 = 18

20. Atomic Mass
Atomic masses listed on the periodic table are weighted averages of the masses of each naturally occurring isotope for that element.
Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes. One has a mass of about 107 amu and the other has a mass of about 109 amu.
Silver-107 has an abundance in nature of 51.84%.
Silver-109 has an abundance in nature of 48.16%.

21. Atomic Mass Calculate the average atomic mass of silver.
Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes.
One has a mass of amu (abundance in nature of %.)
The other has a mass of amu (abundance in nature of 48.16%.)
amu (0.5184) = amu
amu (0.4816) = amu
amu

22. Concept Check 3.5
Chlorine has two principle isotopes, 35Cl with a mass of amu and 37Cl with a mass of amu. The atomic weight of chlorine is amu. Which of the two isotopes is most abundant in a sample of chlorine?

23. Concept Check 3.5 Solution
The atomic weight of chlorine ( amu) is closer to the mass of 35Cl ( amu) than that of 37Cl ( amu), therefore the sample contains more 35Cl than 37Cl. On the planet Earth, chlorine contains 77.77% 35Cl and 24.23% 37Cl.

24. Periodic Law
Mendeleev listed the known elements in order of increasing atomic mass, grouping those with similar properties.
He noticed that certain similar properties would recur in a periodic fashion.
His tabulation is the precursor to our modern periodic table.

25. Mendeleev and the Periodic Table
Proposed that elements would be discovered to fill in gaps in the table.
Proposed that some measured atomic masses were in error.
Summarized a large number of observations
The underlying reasons for periodic behavior were as yet unknown
The Bohr model and the quantum mechanical model were needed to explain the observations.

26. Bohr Diagrams/Electron Configurations
Based on the behavior of electrons as particles
Electron orbits
Specified with n, the orbit’s quantum number
Fixed energies
Fixed radii
Maximum number of electrons based on n
This model is an oversimplification (as are most models).
Atoms with full outer orbits are extremely stable.
Atoms with outer orbits that are not full are unstable and will undergo chemical reactions attempting to fill the outer orbit.

27. The Bohr Model
This is a MODEL of the atom that links electron behavior (microscopic) to the periodic law (macroscopic).

28. Concept Check 3.6
Based on electron configurations, would you expect Li, O, or Ne to be the least reactive.

29. Concept Check 3.6 Solution
Of the three elements, only Ne has a filled octet. Elements that have atoms with filled octets are inert.

30. Concept Check 3.7
Which pair of elements would expect to show similar chemical properties? (a) C and Al (b) K and Na (c) F and Ar (d) Li and Mg

31. Concept Check 3.7 Solution
Answer (b)
(a) C and Al
(b) K and Na
(c) F and Ar
(d) Li and Mg
Both K and Na have the same number of valence electrons and therefore belong to the same group in the Periodic Table of Elements. They are expected to show similar chemical properties.

32. The Quantum Mechanical Model
Based on the behavior of electrons as waves
Replace Bohr’s orbits with orbitals, a representation of electron location as the probability of finding it in a certain region of space.
Orbitals are grouped into shells and fill similarly to Bohr’s orbits.

33. Determinism and Quantum Mechanics
Specifics of orbital filling are beyond the scope of this text…BUT
The statistical nature of the quantum mechanical model rocked the scientific establishment.
An indeterminate universe
Both models are useful even though Bohr’s, by experiment, has been shown to be invalid.

34. Concept Check 3.8
Which statement is true for Bohr model but not of the quantum mechanical model?
Electrons move in circular orbits around a nucleus.
Electrons can exhibit wave behavior.
The exact path of an electron within an atom cannot be specified.

35. Concept Check 3.8 Solution
Which statement is true for Bohr model but not of the quantum mechanical model? Ans: (a) The Bohr model describes electrons moving in circular orbits of specific fixed positions around a nucleus. Although rather simple, the Bohr model does help explain periodic properties. The quantum mechanical model better describes the behavior of electrons in the atom.

36. Families of Elements Also called groups
Based on outer electron configurations
Important vertical columns
Alkali metals (Group 1A)
Alkaline earth metals (Group 2A)
Chalcogens (Group 6A)
Halogens (Group 7A)
Noble gases (Group 8A)

37. Element Families

38. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

39. Molecular Elements
Some elements occur as diatomic molecules.

40. The Mole Concept Counting particles as small as atoms is impractical.
The mole concept allows us to relate the mass of a sample of an element to the number of atoms it contains.
The unit of comparison is called a mole and corresponds to × 1023.

41. Avogadro’s Number
Determined such that the numerical value of the atomic mass of an element in amu is equal to the molar mass of that element in grams per mole.
These relationships of grams, moles, and atoms can be used as conversion factors.

42. Concept Check 3.9
The average pre-1982 U.S. penny contained 3.11 g of copper. How many moles of copper did the pre-1982 penny contain?

43. Concept Check 3.9 Solution
Number of moles of Cu in a pre-1982 U.S. penny:

44. Concept Check 3.10
An 85.0 kg human contains about 4.25 g of the element magnesium. How many atoms in 4.25 g of Mg?

45. Concept Check 3.10 Solution
How many atoms in 4.25 g of Mg?

46. Chapter Summary Molecular Concept Atomic Number and Mass Number
Isotopes
Molar Mass
Bohr Model
Quantum Mechanical Model
Orbitals
Societal Impact
Chemical processes that cause change are caused by changes in atoms or molecules.
Pollution results from “misplaced” atoms. Atoms that are not where they are supposed to be located.
Models are used to describe and interpret nature.