1. English in global contexts For use with Chapter 6 of: Galloway, N. and Rose, H. (2015). Introducing Global Englishes. Routledge. © Dr. Heath Rose and Dr. Nicola Galloway

2. Review of Lecture 5 (1) Lecture 5 described variation in countries where English is spoken as a second language in what is traditionally known as the Outer Circle. WE research highlights the phonological, lexical, and grammatical variation in the use of English. However, the ‘New’ Englishes, despite some similarities, are far from being homogenous, and the increasing use of ELF will be discussed in subsequent lectures. Lecture 5 raised many of the issues discussed in Lecture 3, and it is clear that the spread of English is having both positive and negative impacts on the countries discussed here: –Many Singaporeans are moving away from their mother tongues and, in Africa, while functioning as a neutral lingua franca for some, English use has also resulted in a number of issues related to educational opportunities and identity, and English acts as a gatekeeper in upward social mobility.

3. Review of Lecture 5 (2) We also revisited the topic of identity, introduced in Lecture 2. –English has become an integral part of South Asian culture and writers exploit the language, exemplifying the creative nature of South Asian English. The ‘New’ Englishes continue to face a battle for acceptance and their status has been a central theme here: –The Singaporean government continues to push the instrumental value of English without fostering an integrative element, viewing the indigenized variety as inferior. –In Hong Kong, the battle has more to do with recognition. Two decades may have passed since the Quirk/Kachru debate, but the status of the ‘New’ Englishes appears to be a continuing issue.

4. Overview English as a lingua franca in Europe East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea ASEAN in the Expanding Circle ELF in global contexts

5. Introductory activities Look at the table in the introduction to Chapter 6 (Table 6.1, p. 125), then discuss the questions below. 1.What is your opinion on the age at which English instruction is introduced in the countries listed in Table 6.1? 2.In what ways do you think English is used in these contexts (and others)? Has this changed over the years? 3.In many of the countries listed in Table 6.1, the internal functions of English are growing. Is it still reasonable to classify them as Expanding Circle, or EFL, contexts? 4.In many of these countries, many parents are enrolling their children in private English lessons before they start elementary school. How effective do you think teaching English at such a young age is?

6. English as a lingua franca in Europe Part 1

7. English in Europe 24 official languages (Table 6.2, p. 126) and a policy of linguistic equality: 2 + 1 policy. Translation. But translation doesn’t always take place and English has become the de facto working language: Prerequisite for a successful career. EU employees and delegates use ELF. Working language in business. Main language of translation services (more than half of all EU documents are originally drafted in English). Around 88% of content on the EU websites (http://euobserver.com/news/25712).http://euobserver.com/news/25712 No longer required to translate parliamentary sessions into all 23 languages. ‘English increasingly acts as the de facto though unacknowledged lingua franca throughout the institutions of the EU, and this leads to issues of inequality and disadvantage’ (Seargeant, 2012, p. 114).

8. Education through English and English at work Learn English from a younger age. 90% of all EU pupils now learn English as their first ‘foreign’ language (Modiano, 2006, p. 223) ‘English impinges on everybody’s life in Europe, in many different ways’ (Seidlhofer et al., 2006, p. 3) – but differs throughout Europe May think Europeans should speak a common language (69%) and that EU institutions should adopt a single language when communicating with citizens (53%). Likely to speak English (38% speak English, more than others – European Commission survey, 2012) ‘Outside of the day-to-day business of the EU, the dominance of English is also obvious elsewhere in Europe. English is increasingly being used for wider communication as a lingua franca’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015, p. 127).

9. Euro-English/Euro-speak/English as a lingua franca? Modiano (2006, p. 233) ‘Euro-speak’ exists: – Euro land, Euro area, and Eurozone; Eurosceptic; member state. English proficiency has been the subject of a lot of debate and ‘Euro- English’ is viewed negatively: ELF? ‘From an ELF perspective, it does not seem appropriate to continue the debate about the existence of a monolithic Euro- English’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015, p. 131). Modiano (2006) – exists and will eventually be codified. Görlach (2002, p. 151) – concept of ‘Euro-English’ is ‘little more than a catchphrase’ and ‘recurrent features’ only occur in rather specific contexts. Exists Doesn’t exist

10. English in East Asia: China, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea Part 2

11. 1980s – discourse of kokusaika or internationalization emerged, with education reforms. Emphasis on CLT and NESs. Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme – 4,372 participants; NES bias. One of the largest commercial markets for ELT. Only foreign language option. Compulsory subject on university exams. 2011 elementary school. 2000 proposal to make English official second language. ‘This intention to preserve Japanese cultural identity and national sovereignty may explain why English has taken on such a distinctive form in Japan’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015, p. 131). Japan

12. Table 6.3 (p. 132) – JET participants by top five countries of origin as of July, 2013 (Source: http://www.jetprogramme.org/e/introduction/statistics.html)http://www.jetprogramme.org/e/introduction/statistics.html Country Assistant Language Teacher (ALT) Co-ordinator for International Relations (CIR) Sports Exchange Adviser (SEA) Total United States2,2689102,359 Canada467170484 United Kingdom375130388 Australia278220300 New Zealand241140255 Other37120411586 Total participants from all countries 4,000361114,372

13. Increased emphasis on CBI since 2000. Growing ELT market – Li Yang’s ‘Crazy English’ enterprise. Largest group of English learners in the world (roughly 350 million). Elementary school education and the need for more classes on guoxue. China

14. Growing ELT market – ‘English villages’ and situational classrooms. Proposal in early twenty-first century to make English a second official language – 80% of respondents in a public opinion survey in 2006 reported that they hoped it would happen (Graddol, 2006, p. 89). Taiwan

15. Universities increasingly offering CBI – more than 30% of all classes conducted in English at one university in Seoul (expected to rise) (Park, 2009, p. 97). Recruitment of NESs – the English Program in Korea (EPIK). By 2015, Korea secondary school teachers to teach English in English. Concerns over availability of proficient teachers. Korean parents also spend a lot of money on English education, and many send their children abroad. ‘There is a veritable English language mania’ (Park and Abelman, 2004, p. 646). South Korea

16. East Asian Englishes ‘While we acknowledge the problems relating to establishing a “variety” of East Asian Englishes, it is worthwhile discussing some of the distinct features that have been described in the literature’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015, pp. 134–135). World Englishes Journal in 2002 had a special issue on China. Japan – scholarly discussion over the existence of a Japanese variety of English. Honna (2003) – Japanese learners of English must liberate themselves from ‘native- speakerism’ and establish Nihon-Eigo (Japanese-English). Morrow (2004, p. 95) – time for Japanese students to stop regarding themselves as speakers of ‘broken English’ and see it as a distinct and independent variety. Yano (2001, p. 127) – there has never been, and never will be, ‘a local model of English, established and recognisable as Japanese English, reflecting the Japanese culture and language’. Exists Doesn’t exist Korea – Park (2009) notes that Korean English has some distinctive traits in pronunciation, lexicon, syntax, and discourse.

17. Sounds China – less distinction between long and short vowels (heat and hit). Japan and Korea – /r/ and /l/. China and Japan – /θ/and /ð/ often replaced by s and z. Syllable timed. China and Taiwan – final consonants often omitted. Korea and Japan – added vowels. Vocabulary Variety-specific compounds (Japan: haburashi). Acronyms (Japan: OL). Phrases/Idioms – barefoot doctor (China); eye shopping (Korea). Grammar Countable and uncountable nouns (staffs) article omission. Pragmatics Compliments; yes/no; honorific suffixes.

18. ‘Despite such descriptive work, public opinion towards the English used in these countries appears to be largely negative’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015, p. 136). – Farewell to Japanese English (Hisama, 1995). – Common Mistakes of Japanese English Speakers (Kobayashi, 1998). – A Native English Speaker Would Say it This Way (Williamson and Katsuki, 2005). – How Your English Sounds to Native Speakers (Thayne and Koike, 2008). Attitudes towards English variation in East Asia

19. ASEAN in the Expanding Circle Part 3

20. ASEAN Table 6.4: The national language and English in education in ASEAN in 2010 (MoI = medium of instruction) *The Arabic script jawi is introduced from Primary 3. **Some bilingual education for minority groups in early primary. (Source: Kirkpatrick, 2010a, p. 63)

21. 70+ languages. Moves towards CLT. Lack of a qualified teaching staff has been heavily scrutinized. 2006 – Thai government advertised for NESs to take teaching positions, although only 11 applications were received due to the low salary (Kirkpatrick, 2010a, p. 49). An integral part of the daily lives of many Thais. De facto working language in a number of fields. Preparation for AEC 2015 = greater emphasis on English education. Thailand

22. 400 languages (Kirkpatrick, 2010a,p. 43). Usually taught from primary school (grade 4 or 5). July 2013 – increased emphasis on national language and culture education. Burma/Myanmar English education from kindergarten – poor resources. Small elite class in a small number of domains. Indonesia

23. Laos Approx. 84 languages. English is the first foriegn language in schools taught from elementary grade 3. Shortage of teachers and resources. Small elite class. Cambodia Turbulent history. English is a prerequiite for a career in foriegn agencies. English taught from grade 5. Quality of instruction subject to criticism. Fears related to the spread of English and influence on national language. Vietnam English is the dominant foriegn language – compulsory in secondary schools. Project 2020 – English teachers’ proficiency and move towards English- medium instruction.

24. ASEAN and AEC English has had a different history in these ASEAN countries but is ‘playing an increasing role in each, albeit in different ways. This role is likely to increase with the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015. This brings into question their placement with the Expanding Circle’ (Galloway and Rose, 2015, p. 140). Thailand – 2012 ‘English Speaking Year’. Vietnam – Australian English Language Company (ELC) to provide teacher training. Brunei – partnership with USA to provide English language courses for teacher trainers and government officials. ASEAN English Ready Program – website advertises NESTs to help people get ‘ASEAN ready’. Article 2 of the new ASEAN charter: ‘to respect the different cultures and languages of the region’. ASEAN countries do not appear to be teaching the languages of their members and emphasis on English is growing as ASEAN prepares for the AEC in 2015. ‘This has significant implications for English language learning and teaching in the region. It has implications for language learning goals, for language teachers and for the curriculum’ (Kirkpatrick 2008, p. 131): – Position English as an ‘Asian’ lingua franca. – Successful Asian multilinguals.

25. ELF in global contexts: prevalence, issues, and attitudes Part 4

26. More than just a ‘foreign language’?

27. ELF – what exactly is it? Used between speakers from all three of Kachru’s circles, both within and across them. Contact language. Interlocutors and location can be changing. Challenges notions of ‘variety’ and ‘community’ – ‘communities of practice’ (Lave and Wenger, 1998) Language is dynamic, fluid and changing. Growing as both a phenomenon and a research paradigm.

28. view English as a pluricentric notion focus on the use of English by NNESs, emphasizing the influence of linguistic contact focus on the global ownership of the language, which is independent of NE norms help inform the sociolinguistic challenges of a globalized world have implications for teaching the language Similar underlying ideology – both paradigms: Seidlhofer (2006, p. 43): ‘it is precisely the work on Outer Circle varieties that has led the way for ELF research’. Kubota (2012, p. 57): like ‘World Englishes, ELF challenges the traditional emphasis on teaching based on the Inner Circle Model’.

29. ELF or EIL in global contexts – a note on terminology World Englishes (WE) Identification and codification of national varieties of English English as a lingua franca (ELF) Examines English use within and across such borders English as an International Language (EIL) Implications for ELT; no variety focus Broad association (Sharifian, 2009, p. 6) Misunderstanding of ELF World English, English as a global language, English as a world language, international English, Global English, English as a medium of intercultural communication, World Englishes, English as a lingua franca, English as an International Language

30. Summary of Lecture 6 (1) In Europe, English has assumed a dominant role, irrespective of the multilingual policy of the European Union: – While arguments for a distinct variety of Euro-English have been put forward, it is clear that ELF research is relevant for looking at how English functions as a lingua franca in Europe. In East Asia, there is great emphasis put on English education, as seen by movements lowering the age of English instruction in elementary schools: – Some work has been done on documenting the distinctive features, but the NES episteme remains strong in these countries, which reminds us of points raised in Lecture 2 about standard language ideology. – With increasing ELF usage, ideology may be changing and English is much more than just a foreign language in these countries – it has become an integral part of society.

31. Summary of Lecture 6 (2) In Expanding Circle ASEAN countries, English is more than a foreign language, and ELF is central to international and intranational politics: – English is the official working language, reminding us of its power to create and level inequalities, introduced in Lecture 3 ELF is the use of English amongst people who do not share a first language: – ELF is returned to in Lecture 7 and the pedagogical concerns in Lecture 9.

32. Key terms Multilingualism English medium instruction ASEAN Euro-speak Euro-English Internationalization Modernization Legitimization Codification ASEAN + 3 (China, Japan, Korea) BRIC group (Brazil, Russia, India, China) Pluricentricity Fluid Transient Community Cultural nationalism

33. Further reading On Europe: Modiano, M. (2009). ‘Inclusive/exclusive? English as a lingua franca in the European Union.’ World Englishes, 28(2), pp. 208–23. On Asia and ASEAN: Kirkpatrick, A. (2010a). English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN: A Multilingual Model. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Kirkpatrick, A. (ed.) (2010b). The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes. London: Routledge. On ELF: Mauranen, A. (2012). Exploring ELF: Academic English Shaped by Non-native Speakers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seidlhofer, B. (2001a) ‘Closing a conceptual gap: the case for a description of English as a lingua franca.’ International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), pp. 133–58. Seidlhofer, B. (2009) ‘Common ground and different realities: world Englishes and English as a lingua franca.’ World Englishes, 28(2), pp. 236–45.