1. A Semi-historical Romp Through Prevailing Perspectives on Leadership
EDU 6040
Leadership in Learning Organizations
A Semi-historical Romp Through Prevailing Perspectives on Leadership

2. THE PAOMNNEHAL PWEOR OF
Everyone Has a Theory
THE PAOMNNEHAL PWEOR OF
THE HMUAN MNID 
I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg…
Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is that the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the human mind deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh?
Your picture of leadership…

3. Early Notions of Leadership
Legends, Myths, Heroes:
Stories of individual heroes (and very rarely heroines) were central to Babylonia, Iceland, and Israel. Often, the greater the socioeconomic injustice or turmoil in a society, the more “super human” the leaders became.
Greek concepts :
Nationalism/Governing: “He serves me most, who serves his country best,” Iliad (Book X)
Special: “the leader, mingling with the vulgar host, is in the common mass of matter lost.” Odyssey (Book III)
Justice and judgment
Wisdom and counsel
Shrewdness and cunning
Valor
Often, the greater the socioeconomic injustice or turmoil in a society, the more “super human” the leaders became.

4. Early Notions… Renaissance:
“There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain of its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.” (Machiavelli’s The Prince )
Machiavelli asserted that leaders needed steadiness, firmness, & concern for the maintenance of authority, power, and order, and the esteem of others. If these could not be maintained, then craft, deceit, thereat, treachery, and violence were required.

5. “Great Man” Perspective 1900’s-1920’s
Key questions: Is leadership an innate ability?
Are leaders born to lead?
Leadership studies highly biased towards political, military, aristocratic, or cultural elites. Leadership was considered an art, for which some fortunate people had an inbuilt genius.
Mechanistic and managerial perspectives
Fredrick Taylor - Introduced the scientific analysis of tasks and job-design time-study methods for managers to use in “managing” workers.
Henry Fayol - Introduced principles of management focused on command/control & coordination.
Max Weber - Defined a bureaucratic system based on rational system, not hereditary rule.
Frederick Taylor’s Five Principles of Scientific Management:
Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager.
Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; design the workers’ tasks accordingly, specifying the precise way in which it is to be done.
Select the best person to perform the job thus designed;
Train the worker to do work efficiently;
Monitor worker performance, intervening when exceptionally productive or deficient.

6. Trait Perspective 1940s-1950’s
Key Question: What traits are common to all leaders?
During WWII, an essential question on the US mind was, “What traits do a nation’s (military) leaders need to win the war?” Researchers began to view leadership as a set of facilitative “traits”:
Leadership is “…the process of arranging a situation so that various
members of a group, including the leader, can achieve common
goals with maximum economy and a minimum of time and work”
(Bellows, 1949).
The U.S. government, through defense-research spending, began subsidizing study of leadership effectiveness, which increased interest throughout higher education.
Choice of associates –
Asked members of a group who they would prefer as leaders.
Nomination by qualified observers –
Leaders were named by those deemed to be in a position to judge.
Selection of persons occupying positions of leadership – Leadership regarded as synonymous with holding office.
Analysis of biographical or case-history data.
Intelligence tests and experimental designs.
In 1940s-1960s, increasing use of multivariate methods utilizing questionnaire and surveys.

7. Means of identifying traits
Choice of associates – Asked members of a group who they would prefer as leaders. Nomination by qualified observers – Leaders were named by those deemed to be in a position to judge. Selection of persons occupying positions of leadership – Leadership regarded as synonymous with holding office. Analysis of biographical or case-history data. Intelligence tests and experimental designs. In 1940s-1960s, increasing use of multivariate methods utilizing questionnaire and surveys.

8. Many Leadership Traits
Stogdill
(1948)
Mann
(1959)
Stogdill
(1974)
Lord, DeVader, & Alliger
(1986)
Kirkpatrick & Locke
(1991)
Masculinity
Dominance
Masculinity
Adjustment
Dominance
Extroversion
Conservatism
Motivation
Integrity
Confidence
Cognitive Ability
Task Knowledge
Alertness
Insight
Responsibility
Initiative
Persistence
Self-Confidence
Sociability
Persistence
Insight
Initiative
Self-Confidence
Responsibility
Cooperativeness
Tolerance
Influence
Sociability

9. Leadership Traits Distilled
Intelligence - Intellectual ability including verbal, perceptual, and reasoning capabilities
Self-Confidence - Ability to be certain about one’s competencies and skills
Determination - The desire to get the job done (i.e., initiative, persistence, dominance, drive)
Integrity - The quality of honesty and trustworthiness
Sociability - Leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant social relationships
Summary of Traits
Pure-trait (“Great Man”) theories of leadership have been retired, but traits probably do matter (how much remains unclear.)
A wide array of traits seem to influence leadership effectiveness. A few traits seem to find validation across widely ranging studies…Many scholars have come to believe that these traits likely have little impact in isolation of other factors.
There is some evidence that individual traits matter, and this represents a retreat from the hyper-situationalist view of leadership that sometimes has sought to attribute all success to environmental conditions.
Leadership effectiveness likely owes to an extremely complicated & nuanced interaction among traits and situational variables.

10. Strengths (Trait Theories)
Intuitively appealing
Perception that leaders are different in that they possess special traits
People “need” to view leaders as gifted
Credibility due to a century of research support
Highlights leadership component in the leadership process
Deeper level understanding of how leader/personality related to leadership process
Provides benchmarks for what to look for in a leader

11. Criticisms (Trait Theories)
Fails to delimit a definitive list of leadership traits
Doesn’t take into account situational effects
List of most important leadership traits is highly subjective
Research fails to look at traits in relationship to leadership outcomes
Not useful for training & development
Pure-trait (“Great Man”) theories of leadership have been retired, but traits probably do matter (how much remains unclear.)
A wide array of traits seem to influence leadership effectiveness. A few traits seem to find validation across widely ranging studies…Many scholars have come to believe that these traits likely have little impact in isolation of other factors.
There is some evidence that individual traits matter, and this represents a retreat from the hyper-situationalist view of leadership that sometimes has sought to attribute all success to environmental conditions.
Leadership effectiveness likely owes to an extremely complicated & nuanced interaction among traits and situational variables.

12. Behavioral Perspective (Focus on Skill & Style 1950’s-1970’s
Key Question: What do Leaders Do?
Behavior-focused perspectives on leadership examine the things leaders do or the patterns in those things
Leadership defined as acts by persons which influence other persons in a shared direction. (Seaman (1960)
The essential difference between a leader and an executive is the degree of personal initiative and personal risk that such initiative involves” (Jennings, 1960, page 16).
“Leadership is a position within society which is defined by the ability of the incumbent to guide and structure the collective behavior patterns of some or all of its members …It is at all times relational, interpersonal, and is based upon influence…” (Eidinger, 1967, page 15).

13. The U-M and OSU Studies
Throughout the 1950s-1960s, Ohio State and University of Michigan researchers tried to create a universal theory of leadership by examining how leaders combined task and relationship behaviors. Stogdill and his colleagues began examining leader behavior, rather than traits alone. Importantly, the emphasis was on describing what leaders do (how they behave).
Typically the research involved having subordinates in industrial, military, and educational organizations complete questionnaires (Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)– consisting of some 150 items) about their leaders.
Ultimately, results were contradictory and unclear. Some research suggested every situation required a combination of high-task and high-relationship orientation, but other studies provided conflicting information.

14. The Ohio State (OSU) Studies
Researchers found that questionnaire responses indicated two types of leader behaviors: initiating structure and consideration.
Initiating structure behaviors were task behaviors (e.g., scheduling work activities, defining role responsibilities, giving structure to the work context).
Consideration involved behaviors such as building trust, respect, and camaraderie between leaders and followers and among followers.
Initiating-structure behavior and consideration behavior were conceptualized as separate continua.

15. The Michigan (U-M) Studies
Research on the impact of leaders’ behaviors on small group contexts described two types of leadership behaviors: employee orientation and production orientation.
Employee orientation behaviors, (like “consideration behaviors” identified in OSU studies), describe the behavior of leaders who show a strong human relations orientation with subordinates.
Production orientation behaviors stress technical and production aspects of a job.
Initially, Michigan researchers conceptualized employee orientation and production orientations as opposite ends of a single continuum, but amended as separate continua.

16. Behavioral: A Question of Style Leadership Grid Theory (Blake &Mouton, 1964)
Blake and Moutin’s work drew heavily upon the early style research; sought to identify the proper integration of task- and relationship behaviors.
Their “management grid” described two dimensions along which managers and leaders may vary, 1-9. These measures interacted to create a grid describing five pure style types.

17. The Leadership Grid® Country Club Management Team Management
High 9
1, 9
9, 9
Country Club Management
Team Management 8 7 6
5, 5
Concern for People 5
Middle-of-the-Road 4 3
Impoverished Management
Authority-Compliance Mgmt. 2
1, 1
9, 1 1
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Results
High
Low

18. Authority-Compliance (9,1)
Definition: Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work such that human interference is minimal
Role Focus: More emphasis on task and job requirements and less emphasis on people
Communicating with subordinates outside task instructions not emphasized
Results driven; People regarded as tools to that end

19. Country Club (1,9)
Definition: Thoughtful attention to the needs of people leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo
Role Focus: Low concern for task accomplishment coupled with high concern for interpersonal relationships
De-emphasizes production; leaders stress the attitudes and feelings of people
Positive climate fostered by being agreeable, eager to help, comforting, noncontroversial

20. Impoverished (1,1)
Definition: Minimal effort exerted to get work done is appropriate to sustain organizational membership
Role Focus: Leader unconcerned with both task and interpersonal relationships
Going through the motions, but uninvolved and withdrawn
Have little contact with followers and are described as indifferent, noncommittal, resigned, and apathetic

21. Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
Definition: Adequate organizational performance possible through balancing the necessity of getting work done while maintaining satisfactory morale .
Role Focus: Leaders who are compromisers; have intermediate concern for task and people
To achieve equilibrium, leader avoids conflict while emphasizing moderate levels of production and interpersonal relationships
Described as expedient; prefers the middle ground, soft-pedals disagreement

22. Team (9,9)
Definition: Work accomplished through committed people; interdependence via a “common stake” in the organization’s purpose, which leads to relationships of trust and respect
Role Focus: Strong emphasis on both tasks and interpersonal relationships
Promotes high degree of participation and teamwork
Leader stimulates participation, acts determined, makes priorities clear, follows through, etc.

23. Strengths (Style theories)
Broadened the field of leadership studies to include what leaders do, rather than merely who they are.
Easily applied.
A wide range of studies give some credibility to the findings of style-researchers, particularly regarding the effects on follower/subordinate satisfaction.
The essential elements of the style approach—task and relationship—influenced subsequent generations of leadership research (e.g., Situational Theory).

24. Criticisms (Style theories)
Hasn’t adequately shown how leaders’ styles are associated with performance outcomes.
There is no universal leadership style.
Implies that the most effective leadership behavior is the Team Management style (9,9), when in fact there is little evidence overall in support.

25. Behavioral: A Question of Skill (1955, reemergence 1990’s)
Actually more about what a leader is capable of doing than what a leader does…
Three categories of skills (Katz 1955):
Technical skill
Human Skill
Conceptual Skill

26. Technical skill
Technical skill is having knowledge about and being proficient in a specific type of work or activity.
Specialized competencies
Analytical ability
Capability to use appropriate tools and techniques
Technical skills involve hands-on ability with a product or process
Most important at lower levels of management

27. Human Skill
Human skill is having knowledge about and being able to work with people.
Awareness of one’s own perspective and others’ perspectives at the same time
People skills allow a leader to assist group members in working cooperatively to achieve common goals
Creates an atmosphere of trust where members feel they can become involved and impact decisions in the organization
Important at all levels of the organization

28. Conceptual Skill
Conceptual skill involves the ability to do the mental work of shaping the meaning of organizational policy or issues (what the company stands for and where it’s going)
Works easily with abstraction and hypothetical notions
Central to creating and articulating a vision and strategic plan for an organization
Most important at top management levels

29. Basic Administrative Skills Katz (1955)
Conceptual Skills (ideas)
Human Skills (people)
Technical Skills (things)
Manager
Director VP
Exec VP
CEO

30. Skills Model Mumford, Zaccaro, et al (2000)
Individual Attributes
Crystallized Cognitive Abilities
Motivation
Personality
Competencies
Problem-Solving Skills
Social Judgment Skills
Knowledge
Leadership Outcomes
Effective Problem Solving
Performance
Career Expectations
Environmental Influences

31. Strengths (skills perspective)
Made leadership available to anyone; can be developed and improved
Complicated enough to capture dynamics of many leadership situations, social skills, problem-solving, environment, etc.
Lends itself to teaching other leaders

32. Criticisms (skills perspective)
Skills extend beyond the bounds of leadership so theories are less precise
Weak in predictive value. Skills may correlate with leaders’ success, but HOW do they influence performance?

33. Situational Perspective (First emerged in 1970’s)
Key Question: How does the situation influence leadership effectiveness?
Situational Leadership asserts that different situations demand different kinds of leadership. To be an effective leader, leaders must fit their style to the demands of different situations.
Unable to determine which particular behavior patterns consistently resulted in effective leadership, researchers attempted to identify behavior patterns that worked best in specific contexts or situations.

34. Situational Leadership (SI) Hersey and Blanchard (late 1960’s)
Built on the work of the OSU and U-M teams.
This model considers two components:
Leadership style may be defined as the behavior pattern of an individual who attempts to influence others. It includes both directive (task) behaviors and supportive (relationship) behaviors.
Development level of subordinates refers to the degree to which employees/followers have the competence and commitment necessary to accomplish a given task. Employees are at a high level of development if they are interested in their work, and know how to do their work. Employees with low levels of development are those with high commitment, but low competence.

35. The behavior pattern of an individual who attempts to influence others; includes:
Directive behaviors - Help group members in goal achievement via one-way communication through:
Giving directions
Establishing goals & how to achieve them
Methods of evaluation & time lines
Defining roles
Supportive behaviors - Assist group members via two-way communication in feeling comfortable with themselves, co-workers, and situation

36. High directive-low supportive (S1) = “directing”
Effective leaders are those who exercise appropriate degree of task orientation and relationship orientation relative to the maturity of followers. Specifically, as the level of follower maturity increases, effective leader behavior involves less structuring and less social support.
Based on combinations of these two dimensions, leadership styles can be divided into four distinct categories:
High directive-low supportive (S1) = “directing”
High directive-high supportive (S2) = “coaching”
High supportive-low directive (S3) = “supporting”
Low supportive-low directive (S4) = “delegating”
Employees are conceptualized as moving backwards and forwards along the continuum of development depending upon the task at hand.
The job of leaders, therefore, is to diagnose where employees are in their development, then adapt the leader’s style to match the needs of the follower.
Leaders must be flexible in their leadership style.

37. Delegating Supporting Coaching Directing Moderate Low High
Low Supportive
Low Directive
S 4
Supporting
High Supportive
S 3
Coaching
High Directive
S 2
Directing
S 1
Low
High
Supportive Behavior
Directive Behavior D4 D3 D2 D1
Developed
Developing
Moderate
High
Developmental
Level of
Followers

38. Strengths (Situational Leadership)
Marketplace approval. Situational leadership is perceived as providing a credible model for training employees to become effective leaders.
Practicality. Situational leadership is a straightforward approach that is easily understood and applied in a variety of settings.
Prescriptive value. Situational leadership clearly outlines what you should and should not do in various settings.
Leader flexibility. Situational leadership stresses that effective leaders are those who can change their style based on task requirements and subordinate needs.
Differential treatment. Situational leadership is based on the premise that leaders need to treat each subordinate according to his/her unique needs.

39. Criticisms (Situational Leadership)
Lack of an empirical foundation raises theoretical considerations regarding the validity of the approach
Further research is required to determine how commitment and competence are conceptualized for each developmental level
Conceptualization of commitment itself is very unclear
Replication studies fail to support basic prescriptions of situational leadership model
Does not account for how particular demographics influence the leader-subordinate prescriptions of the model
Fails to adequately address the issue of one-to-one versus group leadership in an organizational setting
Questionnaires are biased in favor of situational leadership

40. Contingency Theory Fiedler (1964)
Key question: What style of leadership is most likely to be successful in a specific situation?
All about a Leader-Match-- Effective leadership is contingent upon matching the right leadership style to the situation
Tame the LPC

41. Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Measure
Low LPC’s are task motivated.
Gain self esteem primarily from productivity
Attend to interpersonal relationships but secondarily
Primary needs: accomplishing goals
Secondary needs: getting along with people
Mid LPC’s are socio-independent
Self-directed
Not overly concerned with task or with how people think of them
More removed from situation and act more independently than low or high LPC
High LPC’s are motivated by Relationships
Major satisfaction in interpersonal relationships
Sees good qualities even in LPC
Attends to tasks after relationships are in good shape

42. Contingency Model (Fiedler, 1967)
Leader-Member Relations
Task Structure
Position Power
Preferred Leadership Style
Good
Poor
High Structure
Low Structure
Strong
Weak
Low & Mid
LPCs
High
Low LCPs

43. Transactional Perspective 1970’s
Origins lie in early 20th-century “management-sciences”. In its original form, the perspective viewed management in economic terms – as exchanges of rewards for good performance, punishments for poor performance.
Heavily influenced by Frederick Taylor’s Five Principles of Scientific Management:
Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager.
Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work; design the workers’ tasks accordingly, specifying the precise way in which it is to be done.
Select the best person to perform the job thus designed;
Train the worker to do work efficiently;
Monitor worker performance, intervening when exceptionally productive or deficient.

44. In the early 1970s, theorists Jacobs (1970) & Hollander (1978) developed an updated transactional theory of leadership. Their model:
Brought followers into focus by highlighting power relations, and the negotiations necessary among people of unequal power and different agendas.
Held that followers are significantly involved in negotiating any exchange or transaction that results in a decision or a course of action.
Acknowledged the fact that followers have minds of their own, and that their opinions and ideas also influence the leader: that leadership is, in fact, a social system characterized by feedback between leaders and followers.

45. What about others? Influence of Groups
First acknowledgement of other players 1930’s & 1940’s
“Leadership may be broadly defined as the relation between an individual and a group built around some common interest and behaving in a manner directed or determined by him.” (Schmidt, 1933)
“Interaction between specific traits of one person and other traits of the many, in such a way that the course of action of the ‘group’ is changed by the one.” (Bogardus, 1934)
Early research indicated that patterns of leadership behavior in small groups were not transferable to large groups, or organizations.

46. Some political scientists also became interested in the exchange model of leadership because it seemed to:
1) appeal to the discipline’s interest in analysis of influence relationships,
2) reflect the pluralistic underpinnings of American democracy, and
3) imply a more powerful role for followers. In exchanging promises for votes, for example, the transactional leader works within the framework of the self-interests of his or her constituency, thus, followers are alleged to wield as much power as leaders.
The leader’s effectiveness, therefore, is defined as the extent to which he or she “delivers” on the promises made to followers in exchange for their support; where delivery is achieved, reciprocal support is presumed to grow, further enhancing the leader’s power, stature, and capability of delivering on future promises made to followers.
Advocates of exchange emphasized its normative nature, its efficiency considerations, and its beneficial implications for followership.

47. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX)
Key Question: What kinds of relationships contribute to success?
LMX theory conceptualizes leadership as a process centered in the interactions between leaders and followers.
LMX theory first described by Dansereau, Graen, & Haga (1975), Graen & Cashman (1975), and Graen (1976)
Theory has undergone a number of revisions since its inception and continues to be of interest to researchers
LMX theory challenges the assumption that leaders treat followers in a collective way.

48. Phases in Leadership Making Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)
Stranger
Acquaintance
Partner
Roles
Scripted
Tested
Negotiated
Influences
One Way
Mixed
Reciprocal
Exchanges
Low Quality
Medium Quality
High Quality
Interests
Self
Self / Other
Group
TIME

49. Phase 1 Stranger Rely on contractual relationships
Interactions rule bound
Rely on contractual relationships
Relate to each other within prescribed
organizational roles
Experience lower quality exchanges
Subordinate motives directed
toward self-interest

50. Phase 2
Acquaintance
Offer by leader/subordinate for improved career-oriented social exchanges
Testing period of taking on new roles and leader providing new challenges
Shift from formalized interactions to new ways of relating
Quality of exchanges improve along with greater trust and respect
Less focus on self-interest, more on goals of the group

51. Phase 3 Mature Partnership Marked by high-quality LMX exchanges
Experience high degree of mutual trust, respect, and obligation toward one another
Tested relationship that is dependable
High degree of reciprocity between leader and subordinate
May depend on each other for favors and special assistance
Highly developed patterns of relating that produce positive outcomes

52. Strengths (LMX)
LMX theory validates our experience of how people within organizations relate to each other and the leader
LMX theory is the only leadership approach that makes the dyadic relationship the centerpiece of the leadership process
LMX theory directs our attention to the importance of communication
Solid research foundation on how the practice of LMX theory is related to positive organizational outcomes

53. Criticisms (LMX)
Inadvertently supports the development of privileged groups in the workplace; appears unfair and discriminatory
The basic theoretical ideas of LMX are not fully developed
Because of various scales and levels of analysis, measurement of leader-member exchanges is being questioned

54. Transformational Perspective
James MacGregor Burns, in Leadership (1978), advanced a notion of leadership known as transformational leadership theory.
Burns: “[Transformational leadership] appeals to the moral values of followers…and occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (p 20).
Transformational leadership refers to the process whereby an individual engages with others to create a bond which raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower – typically for the purpose of bringing substantial change to the organization.

55. Burns saw leadership as a structured interaction between leader and followers that permits significant social processes of change.
Transformational changes within society embrace material, psychological, cultural, and institutional dimensions.
When the transforming leader engages others by exploiting their higher-order needs, the resulting collective act produces a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents.

56. Burns’ categories of transactional leadership:
Opinion Leaders and Spectacle - In public opinion leadership, the transactions are less tangible, like the exchange of a political office for electoral support (p. 258). Voters get psychic rewards from vicarious participation in the spectacle of the campaign and election.
Group Leaders - the bargainers and bureaucrats.  Example: William F. Whyte's Street Corner Society.
Political Party Leadership - Parties contend and conflict in the struggle for power. Leaders face a perpetual battle of combative parties seeking power. 

57. Legislative Leadership: The Price of Consensus - Bargaining, reciprocity, and payoff is the transactional trading system of legislative leadership.  Example: LBJ’s transactional leadership exploited channels of obligation, expectation, awarding and denying prize committee assignments and chairmanships, allotting congressional funds, amassing and distributing credits, and hinting at threat through scorn and accusation to achieve his ends.
Executive Leadership - "The distinguishing characteristics of executive leaders, in contrast with party or parliamentary leaders, are their lack of reliable political and institutional support, their dependence on bureaucratic resources such as staff and budget, and most of all their use of themselves - their own talent and character, prestige and popularity, in the clash of political interests and values." Example: FDR.

58. Burns’ Four Categories of Transformational Leader
Intellectual
Reform
Revolutionary
Heroic

59. Intellectual Leadership:
An intellectual leader is devoted to seeing ideas and values that transcend immediate practical needs and still change and transform their social milieu.
The concept of intellectual leadership brings in the role of conscious purpose drawn from values. The intellectual leader is out of step with their own time, in conflict with the status quo. The intellectual leader is a person with a vision that can transform society by raising social consciousness.

60. Reform Leadership:
Leadership of reform movements requires participation of a large number of allies with various reform and nonreform goals of their own, which means dealing with endless divisions in the ranks, and a collective that is anti-leadership.
Reform leadership by definition implies moral leadership, which means an attention to matching the means to the ends. Reform leaders transform parts of society to realize moral principles. 
Example: Charles Grey
(In 1792, Grey proposed a bill to reform Parliament that would split the Whig party.  He undertook the illegalization of the slave trade, a poor act, the India Bill, and a factory act. Grey displayed timing, steadiness of purpose, and mediation skills, and put together coalitions and initiated reforms instead of revolution. In 1832, the combined Reform Bill became law.)

61. Revolutionary Leadership:
Examples: Luther, Lenin, Mao and Fidel Castro
Revolutionary leadership demands commitment, persistence, courage, perhaps selflessness. The reformer operated on the parts, the revolutionary operates on the whole.
"In its broadest meaning revolution is a complete and pervasive transformation of an entire social system" (p. 202). Such transformation means the creation of a new ideology, the rise of a movement, and the zeal to overthrow the status quo, and can result in the reconstruction of economy, education, law, and even social class.
Revolutionary leaders have strong sense of vision, mission, and end-values, the transcendent purpose. A transcendent purpose and strong will is needed to motivate masses of people to revolt in the service of revolution.

62. Heroic Leadership:
Example: Moses (the epitome of charismatic heroic leadership.) 
Moses led the Hebrew people, the Israelites, out of slavery in Egypt. He is depicted in Exodus, as a vigorous and decisive leader. And God revealed himself to Moses, which is proof of his charisma. As leader, Moses is surrounded by an endless number of needs, people demands, requests for decisions, and problems to solve.
For the role of a leader in Israel is not only to defend, redeem, preach and govern, but also and primarily, to nurture. Moses is the savior of Israel and their teacher and legislator, but also their "faithful shepherd" and "shepherd of faith" - meaning that he is the provider of their needs, both materially and spiritually, feeding their bodies with manna and feeding their souls with faith."

63. Types of Leadership Defined Burns (1978)
LAISSEZ-FAIRE
Non-leadership. Leaders make no real attempt to move or to meet followers’ needs
TRANSACTIONAL
Focuses on the exchanges that occur between leaders and their followers
TRANSFORMATIONAL
Process of engaging with others to create a connection that increases motivation and morality

64. Transformational vs. Transactional
Transacting leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest. It makes use of three general strategies:
contingent rewards;
active management by exception;
passive management by exception.
Together, these approaches may induce follower compliance, but is unlikely to generate enthusiasm and commitment.
Transformational leaders (as described by Burns and, later, by Bass) evoke from their followers feelings of trust, admiration, loyalty and respect by:
Making them aware of the importance of task outcomes;
Inducing them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the group (“Leadership is nothing if not linked with collective purpose”);
Activating their higher-order needs.
For Burns, the transforming leader focuses on ends, while the transacting leader negotiates and bargains over the means. 

65. Model of Transformational Leadership Bass (1985)
Laissez-Faire
Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Transformational
Leadership

66. Transformational Leadership Bass (1985)
Laissez-Faire
Transactional
Transformational
Factor 7
Laissez-Faire
Nontransactional
Factor 5
Contingent Reward
ConstructiveTransactions
Factor 1
Idealized Influence
(Charisma)
Factor 6
Active Mgmt. by Exception
Passive Mgmt. by Exception
Corrective Transactions
Factor 2
Inspirational
Motivation
Factor 3
Intellectual
Stimulation
Factor 4
Individualized
Consideration

67. Non-leadership Factor
Laissez-Faire
The absence of leadership. A hands-off, let-things-ride approach. Refers to a leader who abdicates responsibility, delays decisions, gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs.

68. Transactional Leadership Factors
Contingent Reward
The exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort by followers is exchanged for specified rewards
Management by Exception
Leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and
negative reinforcement
Active - Watches follower closely to identify mistakes or rule violations
Passive - Intervenes only after standards have not been met or problems have arisen

69. Transformational Leadership Factors
The 4 “I”s
Individualized Influence
Describes leaders who act as strong role models for followers
Inspirational Motivation
Leaders who communicate high expectations to followers, inspiring them through motivation to commitment and engagement in the shared vision of the organization
Intellectual Stimulation
Stimulates followers to be creative and innovative; challenges their own beliefs and values and those of leader and organization
Individualized Consideration
Leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefully to the needs of followers

70. Charisma Personality Effect on Characteristics Behaviors Followers
Charisma - A special personality characteristic that gives superhuman or exceptional powers and is reserved for a few, is of divine origin, and results in the person being treated as a leader
Personality Effect on
Characteristics Behaviors Followers
Trust in Leader’s ideology
Belief similarity to leader
Unquestioning acceptance
Affection toward leader
Obedience
Identification
Emotional Involvement
Heightened goals
Increased confidence
Dominant
Desire to influence
Confident
Strong moral values
Sets Strong Role Model
Shows Competence
Articulates Goals
Communicates High Expectations
Expresses Confidence
Arouses Motives

71. Bass’s Reapplication of Burns
Bass accused Burns of three errors: (1) Burns did not pay attention to the portfolio of followers' needs and wants, (2) Burns restricted transformational leadership to moral ends, and, (3) Burns set up a single continuum running from transactional to transformational leaderly types.
Bass has argued that transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed, that regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization, followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would usually be expected.
Bass contends that "most leaders do both (transformation and transaction) in different amounts" and that "transformational and transactional leadership are likely to be displayed by the same individual in different amounts and intensities" (p. 26). 
"The transactional leaders works within the organizational culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes the organizational culture." The transformational leader even "changes the social warp and woof of reality."
In sum, transformational is hierarchically superior to transactional leadership valuation, but all leaders practice some form or degree of transactional leadership, too.

72. Full Range of Leadership Model
Nonleadership
LF Laissez-Faire
Transactional
MBE-P Mgmt by Exception Passive
MBE-A Mgmt by Exception Active
CR Contingent Reward
Transformational
4 “I”s
Idealized Influence
Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation
Individualized Consideration
Effective
4 “I”s CR
Passive
MBE- A
Active
MBE- P
Frequency LF
Ineffective
Source: Bass & Avolio (1994)

73. Additive Effect of TL Performance Beyond Expectations
TL motivates followers beyond the expected by:
raising consciousness about the value and importance of specific and idealized goals
transcending self-interest for the good of the organization
addressing higher-level needs
Transformational Leadership
Individualized
Influence
Inspirational
Motivation
Intellectual
Stimulation
Individualized
Consideration + + +
Transactional Leadership
Contingent Reward
Performance Beyond
Expectations +
Expected
Outcomes
Management by
Exception
Source: Bass & Avolio (1990)

74. Recent Elaborating on Transformational Theory
Bennis and Nanus (1985) studied ninety top corporate and industry leaders. Their list of newly discovered leader traits include: logical thinking, persistence, empowerment, and self-control.
But, most of all they rediscovered transformational (leaders) as being different from transactional (managers).  The transformation is to make followers into self-empowered leaders, and into change agents. The leader's job is to articulate Vision and Values clearly so the new self-empowered leaders know where to go.
The Traits of a Transformational leader are the “4 I's:”
Idealized Influence (leader becomes a role model)
Inspirational Motivation (team spirit, motivate, and provide meaning and challenge).
Intellectual Stimulation (creativity & innovation)
Individual Consideration (mentoring)

75. Strengths (Transformational Model)
Broadly researched. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms.
Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them.
Process-focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders.
Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models.
Emphasizes follower. TL emphasizes followers’ needs, values, and morals.
Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership.

76. Criticisms (Transformational Model)
Lacks conceptual clarity
Dimensions are not clearly delimited
Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership
Measurement questioned
Validity of MLQ not fully established
Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model
TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behavior that can be taught
TL is elitist and antidemocratic
Suffers from heroic leadership bias
TL is based primarily on qualitative data
Has the potential to be abused

77. SUMMARY: 8 Categories of Leadership Theory
1. “Great Man” Theories 2. Trait Theories 3. Contingency Theories 4. Situational Theories 5. Behavioral Theories 7. Management Theories (also known as Transactional) 8. Relationship Theories (also known as Transformational)
Leadership Theories - 8 Major Leadership Theories
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
1. “Great Man” Theories:
Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term “Great Man” was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.
2. Trait Theories:
Similar in some ways to “Great Man” theories, trait theory assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.
3. Contingency Theories:
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.
4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
5. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
6. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
7. Management Theories:
Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.
8. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.