1. Regents Review!!

2. Ecology

3. Ecology
The study of interactions between living things and their environment.
Energy is needed in order to keep the ecosystem going.
Energy comes from the sun. It is used by producers. (who are producers?)

4. Food Chain/Web Draw a food web: 1. Include 5 organisms
2. Label producers and consumers
3. Label heterotrophs and autotrophs
4. Where is the most energy found?
5. How is energy given off?

5. Energy in the Food Chain
Energy is lost as it is passed to the next step in the food chain.
We give energy off as heat.
As an organism consumes food, they consume a little bit of the food’s energy
Among populations of any natural community, the basic food supply is always a critical factor because it is: A) produced by all organisms B) synthesized from oxygen C) a means of transferring energy D) present in surplus amounts

6. Predator vs. Parasite Predator – Parasite -
define and give an example of each

7. Nature Cycles Carbon Cycle – Nitrogen Cycle –
Water Cycle – evaporation, condensation, precipitation.

8. Pyramids
Pyramid of Energy

9. Ecosystem
All of the living and non living things in an exact area that interact with one another.
These include biotic and abiotic factors.
abiotic
biotic
List biotic and abiotic factors for a pond ecosystem

10. Important Abiotic Factors
Air
Water
Light
Temperature pH
Food
Predators
**these determine which organisms can live in an ecosystem and controls their populations

11. Carrying Capacity The maximum size that a population can have.
Name examples of factors controlling human population growth:

12. Niche An animal’s role in the environment
For example – a bee must pollinate
Name another example of a niche.

13. Competition
This exists when more than one organism occupies one niche.
Animals do try to avoid this by keeping to their own territory.
Example – birds eat insects during the day, bats eat them at night.
What is it called when two different species live in the same area and use the same limited resources?

14. Ecological Succession
The gradual change in an ecosystem where one species is replaced by another and grown until stability is reached.
Climax –
Pioneer –
Describe what happens during a forest fire and volcanic eruption

15. Biodiversity The variety of life on earth.
Extinction reduces biodiversity as well as habitat loss.
This is a problem because:
We are losing valuable natural resources 2.

16. Human Impact
Development of land, industrialization, pollution, farming, over hunting, over grazing, introducing a foreign species are things humans do.
They all have negative affects on earth and ourselves.
Pick one and explain why it is an issue to ecosystems on earth

17. What causes these problems?
An overpopulation of humans.
Actions being taken to reduce or repair the damage:
1. recycling wastes
2. conserving available resources
3. cleaner resources (solar vs. fossil)
4. protection of habitats and endangered species
5. Farming native plants
6. Planting new trees
Pick one and give a specific example of how humans have developed a new way to use this.

18. LONG ANSWER QUESTION!
For each of the following you should be able to identify the specific cause, their negative effects on the environment, and a way that people are trying to fix the problem.
1. acid rain deforestation
3. loss of biodiversity global warming
5. loss of ozone layer 6. industrialization

19. GENETICS

20. Humans We have 46 chromosomes. How many homologous pairs do we have?
Chromosome pairs carry alleles for the same trait. We all have two alleles for each gene. (why two?)

21. Expression of Genes Genes are determined by traits.
However, the environment affects how the gene is expressed
Each gene codes for a specific protein
What are the building blocks of proteins?

22. Codons Name the four DNA bases: Three bases together make up a codon.
Each codon represents a specific amino acid.

23. Codon Chart!!
UUC CAG GUG AAG Which four amino acids does that code for?

24. RNA Carries the genetic code to ribosomes.
What is the ribosome responsible for making?
If the ribosome codes wrong, what will it make?

25. Mutation Changes in DNA.
Can only be passed on if they occur in reproductive cells.
What are the two reproductive cells?

26. Selective Breeding Produces animals and plants with desired traits.
What is the biggest example of selective breeding?
Why is it so important?

27. Genetic Engineering
Inserts genes of one organism into genes of another.
________ are used to cut and copy DNA fragments.
What pathogen do we often use for this process?

28. Making Insulin
The gene to make human insulin was inserted into bacteria.
It can make insulin that we use for patients with diabetes.
How has this had a dramatic impact on the medical field?

29. Gel Electrophoresis
Separates DNA into pieces based on their size.

30. Karyotyping Shows chromosomes.
Makes it easier to diagnose genetic disorders
What issue can you find with these chromosomes?

31. Evolution

32. Theory of Modern Evolution
What does this theory propose?
Modern species have developed from earlier, different species and share a _____________ ___________
Give an example of a common human ancestor

33. Charles Darwin Proposed natural selection. This includes:
1. overproduction of offspring
2. competition for limited resources
3. survival of the fittest
The process of natural selection is based on the assumption that 1) environmental changes will cause changes in body structure in individuals 2) most changes from generation to generation are the result of mutations 3) part of the population of organisms always remains stable 4) different traits inherited by offspring have different survival value.

34. Fitness
What does fitness mean in terms of an animal’s ability to survive?
Organisms that are better adapted to their environment and able to reproduce successfully.
What happens to unfit organisms?

35. Evolution Define evolution – It is driven by change in an environment.
In order to evolve, the change must be present in the species before the environment changes.
These changes are caused by random _________

36. Variation How do we get so much variation within a species? 1. 2.
The better the variation, the higher the rate of __________

37. Gradualism vs Punctuated Equilibrium
Gradualism – change occurs slowly
Punctuated equillibrium – evolution happens in quick spirts.
Which one is true in your opinion?

38. Isolation Geographic isolation –
Reproductive isolation – caused by the inability to mate
Name two reasons for geographic isolation

39. Geology
Study of fossils and radioactive dating to find how old something is.
They also look at embryos through embryology to determine common ancestors.

40. Scientific Method

41. Observation vs. Inference
Observation – what is seen or measured
Inference – a conclusion based on observation or evidence
What is this?
The fold of the arm can appear to look like something else. Give an observation and an inference.

42. Hypothesis Define hypothesis
A good hypothesis states both cause and effect
(If…then… statements)
An untested prediction
I gave my car an oil change. I tried to start the car and it did not turn on. State a hypothesis for why my car did not work.

43. If I wanted to measure the effects of coffee on morning alertness, what would be the control and experimental conditions?
Experiment
Controlled experiment – compares the results of an experiment between two groups
Experimental group – group being tested or receiving treatment
Control group – normal group that should be identical to the experimental group in every way (except for treatment)

44. Placebo
Fake treatment given to the control group so subjects do not know which group they are in.
What other benefit do placebos have?

45. Variables
Independent variable – the variable that is being tested (X axis)
Dependent variable – variable that is measured at the end of the experiment (Y axis)
If you wanted to measure the effects of exercise on the amount of times a clothespin would be squeezed, what would serve as your independent and dependent variables?

46. Characteristics of Good Experiments
Name some:
1. can be repeated by anyone and get the same result
2. Have a large sample size and many text subjects
3. are performed for longer periods of time
4. tests only one variable
5. are peer reviewed
6. is objective

47. Graphing
Make sure you include title, labeled axis, an appropriate scale, and you use AS MUCH OF THE GRAPH AS POSSIBLE!!

48. Characteristics of Living Things

49. All Living Things In order to maintain homeostasis: 1. Nutrition
2. Transport
3. Respiration
4. Growth
5. Synthesis
6. Regulation
7. Reproduction
All of these make up metabolism

50. Nutrition Autotrophs – Heterotrophs –
Write the equation for photosynthesis
Autotrophs –
Heterotrophs –
Photosynthesis – takes energy from the sun and puts it in the bonds of sugar molecules. (happens in the chloroplast)

51. Plants Stomata – small holes in the leaf where gas exchange occurs
Guard Cells – open and close stomates
Chloroplast – contain green pigment that captures light to make food
Some plants respond to light with a sudden enlargement of their leaf pores. This response is important because it enables the plant to increase its intake of A) carbon dioxide B) water C) oxygen D) nitrogen

52. Respiration
ALL organisms get energy by breaking the bonds of sugar molecules
Energy released makes ATP!!
This happens in the mitochondria
Energy released from the cellular respiration of glucose is A) first stored within ATP B) stored in the liver as fat C) turned into fat D) used directly for body activity

53. Aerobic vs. Anaerobic
Aerobic – requires oxygen and yields a ton of ATP.
Anaerobic – happens without oxygen. Makes little ATP
Lactic Acid – happens when muscles are forced to get energy from anaerobic respiration.
What is a major type of anaerobic respiration?

54. What is osmosis?
Transport
What happens when there is too much water in a cell? Too little?
Diffusion – movement of molecules from high to low concentrations. (no energy needed)
Active Transport – needs energy to move molecules from a low to high concentration. (against the flow of diffusion)

55. Regulation Coordination and control of other life functions
Stimulus – a change in the environment that you respond to.
This is done by neurons and hormones
What is the function of the cell membrane in regards to regulation?

56. Neurons and Hormones Neuron – a nerve cell
Name an important hormone and its function
Neuron – a nerve cell
Hormone – a chemical signal secreted by different glands in the body
Impulse – electrical signal carried by nerves. Are carried by neurotransmitters
Receptor – protein on the surface of a cell membrane that receives signals from the nervous and endocrine system. (cell communication)

57. Chemistry Most common elements are –
Organic Compounds have Carbon and Hydrogen together.
The four main body molecules are:

58. Carbohydrates Sugars and Starches!!
Made from simple sugars like _________
Supply energy!!

59. Lipids Fats, oils, and waxes! Store energy!
Made from fatty acids and glycerol

60. Proteins (most important)
What is the function of hemoglobin?
Made from amino acids
Make up most of your body cells
Its shape determines its function

61. Jobs of a Protein 1. makes enzymes
2. make receptor molecules on the membrane
3. make antibodies
4. make hormones

62. Enzymes
Act as a catalyst. They speed up reactions so things can happen quickly
Lock and Key model – one type of enzyme fits one type of molecules. If the shape changes, the enzyme won’t work.
TEMPERATURE AND pH will cause proteins to not work.
What do temperature and pH do to the protein itself?

63. pH Measures acids and bases A low pH is an acid –(0 - 6.9)
A high pH is a base – (7.1 – 14)
Neutral is a pH of 7 (water)
Milk has a pH of 6. Is that an acid or a base?

64. Classification Classified based on evolutionary history
Name based on genus and species. What is the human genus and species?
Classified based on evolutionary history
Kingdom – a large group of related organisms.
(fungi, bacteria, protists, animals, plants)
Species – able to successfully reproduce amongst its members.

65. Cells!
The basic unit of life. All living things except viruses are made of them.
They are specialized into tissues
Tissues – groups of cells specialized to do certain jobs

66. Cell Theory 1. all living things are made of cells
2. cells arise from pre-existing cells
3. cells are the basic unit of structure and function in a living thing
What pathogenic organism is not included in this theory?

67. Plant vs. Animal Cell
Plant Animal

68. Cell Organelles
Cell Wall –
Nucleus –
Cytoplasm –
Ribosome –
Vacuole -

69. Cell Membrane Made up of lipids and proteins
Is selectively permeable (only small molecules can pass through it)
Large molecules need to be moved in by active transport
In both plant and animal cells, the cell membrane 1) produces enzymes 2) controls reproduction 3) is composed of sugar 4) regulates diffusion

70. Cell Organization
Cell  Tissue  Organ  Organ System

71. Lab Skills

72. Staining a Slide
How do you properly stain a slide?

73. Conversions
Under a microscope, things are measured in micrometers. (um)
1 meter = 1,000,000 micrometers
1 millimeter = 1,000 micrometers
A bug is seen under a microscope at .03 millimeters. How many micrometers is that?

74. Body Systems

75. Reproduction
Name three types of asexual reproduction.
Asexual – makes identical offspring through mitosis (faster, easier)
Disadvantage – no variety
Sexual – offspring different from parent through meiosis (variety)
Disadvantage – more time, effort, risk

76. Mitosis Asexual reproduction
How many chromosomes will the daughter cells have?
Asexual reproduction
One division – two identical, diploid cells
Chromosome number in the daughter cells is the same as in the parent cells
Large organisms use mitosis for growth and healing. Small organisms use it to reproduce.

77. Meiosis Sexual Reproduction
One cell divides twice to make four different cells
All four cells are haploid and have half the number of chromosomes found in the parent cell
Makes gametes. Males make 4 sperm and females make 1 egg and three polar bodies

78. Fertilization Occurs in the fallopian tube
A fertilized egg is called a zygote and has the normal number of chromosomes.
During this point, homologous chromosomes from each parent meet to form 46 chromosomes.

79. Where does fertilization occur? Where does implantation occur?

80. Fetal Development The fetus develops in the uterus.
Cells divide without becoming larger. After a few days they begin to differentiate and form nerve cells, skin, bones, etc.
At this stage the embryo is very vulnerable to alcohol and drugs.

81. Before it can be used by individual cells, food must be broken down and distributed throughout the body. Name two systems that must interact to accomplish this.
Digestive System
One way passage of food throughout the body that includes the mouth, stomach, and intestines.
Food is broken down small enough to enter the body tissues/cells
Peristalsis moves food through the digestive system.

82. Digestive System Food is broken down chemically and mechanically.
Undigested food is eliminated as solid waste.

83. What is the universal blood donor and what is the universal blood acceptor?
Circulatory System
Moves materials (water, nutrients, hormones, and wastes) through the body.
Red blood cells carry oxygen
White blood cells fight disease
Plasma is the fluid of the blood that transports everything except oxygen
Platelets clot the blood

84. How do the white blood cells prevent you from getting the same cold twice?
Immune System
Protects the body against pathogens (viruses, bacteria, and parasites)
Contain white blood cells
The immune system protects the body against invaders.
An organ transplant requires a person to be placed on a immunosuppressant in order to prevent the body from rejecting the organ.

85. Immune Response Antigens – cause an immune response
What is the importance behind vaccinating young children?
Antigens – cause an immune response
Antibodies – a protein made by WBC to attack antigens
Vaccine – an injection of dead or weakened pathogen. Causes the body to make antigens against that pathogen
Antibiotics – drugs used to stop infections by bacteria. Does not work against a virus.

86. Respiratory System
Explain what occurs in the alveoli
Physical respiration (breathing) provides oxygen needed for chemical respiration (which releases energy from sugar)
Diaphragm – muscle that allows breathing to occur
You breathe faster when CO2 builds up in the blood
The alveoli are very important. Gas exchange occurs here.

87. Excretory System Removes metabolic waste from your body
What do I mean by “the lungs excrete water?”
Removes metabolic waste from your body
Lungs excrete CO2 and water
Skin excretes sweat
Kidneys filter waste from blood and reabsorb nutrients
Liver filters toxins and dead read blood cells

88. Skeletal Muscular System
Bone –
Bone Marrow –
Cartilage –
Tendon –
Ligaments -
Muscles only pull and must work in pairs

89. Nervous System
Regulates the body with the help of the endocrine system
Brain: contains three parts

90. Brain
Cerebrum-
Cerebellum –
Medulla –
Spinal Cord –

91. Endocrine System Regulates the body along with the nervous system
Pancreas makes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar
Adrenal glands make adrenaline when the body is under stress
Testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone are made by sex organs
Hormone levels are controlled by negative feedback

92. Interactions between systems
Explain how different systems of the body work together to maintain homeostasis

93. Diseases Name a disease and how it disrupts homeostasis Caused by:
1. virus (AIDS, cold, flu)
2. bacteria (strep throat, syphilis)
3. fungus (athletes foot, ringworm)
4. parasites (tapeworm, leeches)
5. genetic disorders (Down’s Syndrome, sickle cell)
6. Environmental toxins (lead poisoning, radiation)
7. Poor Nutrition (scurvy, goiter)
8. Organ Malfunction (heart attack, diabetes)
9. High Risk Behavior (smoking, drug use)