1. Phonology
LI Nathalie F. Martin

2. Introduction: Phonology
No human language exploits all phonetic possibilities
Every language makes its own particular selection from the range of all possible ___________

3. Introduction Phonological Representation
Phonology /fənɒlədʒi/ :
The components of grammar that determines the _______of speech sounds and that ______both the sound ______ and the systematic phonetic variation found in language.

4. Introduction Phonological Representation
The task of phonologists:
To ________and ________the systematic phonetic patterns found in individual languages
To discover the ___________ ____that underlie the patterning of sounds across human languages.

5. Introduction Phonological Representation
Three major phonological units:
___________

6. Introduction Phonological RepresentationWd
σ σ
s è g m F n t
- syllabic
+ sonorant …
Word level
Syllable level
Segment level
Feature level
[ ]

7. Introduction Phonological Representation
Segment:
___________ ___________
Feature:
Features correspond to articulatory or acoustic ___________such as [voice] or [strident]
Smallest building block of phonological structure
Syllable:
A syllabic element – usually a vowel- and any preceding or following segments that are associated with it

8. Segments in Contrast Contrast
All speakers knows which segments contrast and which ones don’t …
Segments are said to _______when:
Their presence alone may distinguish forms with different meaning from each other
Ex: sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp]
Ex: hit [hɪt], hat [hæt] & hot [hɒt]

9. Segments in Contrast Minimal Pairs
The first step in the analysis of the phonology of language is to establish which sounds in that language are in ______with each other
In order to establish contrast, it is necessary to examine the ___________ of sounds in words and to compare word meanings.
This can be accomplished through the ______________

10. Segments in Contrast Minimal Pairs
Minimal pair: Consists of _______with ___________ that differ by ______ ____ ______found in the same position in each form.
Example:
sip [sɪp] and zip [zɪp]
Therefore the segments [s] and [z] contrast

11. Segments in Contrast Minimal Pairs – English Consonant
Example:

12. Segments in Contrast Minimal Pairs – Definitions
Environment:
The phonetic _________in which a sound occurs.
Near minimal pairs:
Pairs of words that have segments in nearly identical environments (ex: assure & azure)

13. Segments in Contrast Minimal Pairs – Definitions
Phoneme:
Segments that _______with each other ___________ _______are said to belong to separate phonemes of that language
Contrastive phonological units
Not to be confused with ________

14. Segments in Contrast Vowel Contrast in English
Find words with these minimal pairs (vowels)

15. Segments in Contrast Vowel Contrast in English

16. Segments in Contrast Language-Specific Contrasts
Important:
- Two sounds can be phonetically distinct without necessarily being phonologically distinct or contrastive.
- Sounds that are contrastive in one language may not necessarily be contrastive in another.

17. Segments in Contrast Language-Specific Contrasts
Example:
In English [ɛ] & [æ] are contrastive (ex: Ben & ban)
In Turkish (ex: the word “I” can be said [bɛn] & [bæn])

18. Segments in Contrast Practice & Homework
Find minimal pairs to show contrast between all English consonants
(15 phonemes)
Exceptions which are hard to find:
[ŋ] [h]
[ʔ] [ʒ]

19. Complementary distribution

20. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction
Phonetic variation is systematic
Occurs most often in phonetically similar segments
Conditioned by the ___________ or environment in which the segments are found

21. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Introduction - Variation
Variation occurs because segments are affected and altered by phonetic characteristics of neighboring elements or by the larger phonological context in which they occur
Speakers and listeners of any language tend to factor out this type of variation in order to focus on contrast that affect meaning

22. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Complementary Distribution
In English, all Ls are not identical
Different sounds:
[l̥̥] (voiceless l)& [l] (voiced l)
Yet they do not contrast
There are no minimal pairs in which the phonetic difference [l̥̥] & [l] functions to indicate difference

23. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Complementary Distribution
Examine the distribution of the two Ls
All of the voiceless [l̥̥] occurs after the class of ___________ ___________
Voiced [l] never occurs after voiceless stops
Predictable property of phonology in English

24. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Complementary Distribution
Therefore:
Since no voiced [l] ever occurs in the same phonetic environment as a voiceless [l̥] (and vice versa), we say that that the two variants of L are in ___________ ___________
Table Complementary distribution of [l] and [l̥] in English
[l]
[l̥]
After voiceless stops no
yes
Elsewhere

25. Phonemes and allophones

26. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Phonemes and allophones
When segments are phonetically distinct, but not phonologically the same they are considered _________(predictable variants) of one _________(contrastive phonological unit).

27. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Phonemes and allophones
Phonetic representation:
Consists of predictable variants or allophones
Phonemic (or phonological) representation:
Consists of the phonemes to which the allophones belong.
Phonemic representation (phoneme)
/l/
Phonetic representation (allophones)
[l̥̥] [l]
Symbols for phonemes are placed between slashes //
Symbols for allophones are enclosed in square bracket []

28. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Phonemes and allophones
Are _________representations: the way in which sounds are stored in the mind.
Are in your ________
Allophones:
Are not part of what you remember when you store a word in your mind
Come out of your mouth

29. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Phonemes and allophones
An important part of phonological analysis thus deals with discovering ___________ of the phonemes of language and accounting for ___________ ___________.

30. Classes and generalization

31. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Free Variation
Various forms that do not change the meaning since they are phonetically similar.
They are therefore allophones of a phoneme
Ex: [stɒp!], [stɒp̚] & [stɒpʔ]
[p!], [p̚] & [pʔ] are different allophones of the phoneme /p/
Notice that the narrow transcription of these words and the different allophones are in square brackets and that the phoneme is in between slashes.
Forceful articulation (Feature rep. only used in the book)
Coarticulation with glottal stop
Extended closure

32. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Classes & Systematic Variation
Everyday speech usually _______ systematically according to phonetic classes

33. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Classes & Systematic Variation
In English, liquids have _______ __ __ _____after voiceless stops and ___________ __elsewhere.
General
Statement

34. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Classes & Systematic Variation
In English, liquids and glides have ___________ ________after voiceless stops, and _________ __ ___________ elsewhere.
General
Statement

35. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Classes & Systematic Variation
One of the major goals of phonological description is the discovery of such ____ __ ________, and the formulation of the most ___________ ____possible to describe them.

36. Phonetically Conditioned Variation
Canadian Raising
English mid vowels and glides
Language-specific patterns

37. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Canadian Rising
Canadian rising is another example of allophonic variation in English
[aj] before the class of ____________________
or in _________________
[ʌ j] before the class of ________________________________________

38. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Canadian Rising
[aj] before the class of ___________ or in ___________
[ʌ j] before the class of ___________

39. Phonetically Conditioned Variation English Mid Vowels and glides
In most dialects of English, the mid tense vowels [e] & [o] are always diphthongized
[ej] & [ow]
[e] and [o] are both mid tense vowels
[e] and [j] are both back and unrounded
[o] and [w] are both back and unrounded

40. Phonetically Conditioned Variation English Mid Vowels and glides
The ___________ ___________ are predictably followed by a ___________ that has the same ___________ and ___________ as the vowels
General
Statement

41. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Language-specific patterns
Important:
The phenomenon of allophonic variation is universal.
However, just as the phonemic contrast found in each language are specific to that language, the actual ___________ of phonemes and allophones is also language-specific.
Thus, whatever we discover for one language may not hold true for another.

42. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Language-specific patterns
Nasals in Scots Gaelic:
Vowels are nasal in Scot Gaelic when preceded or followed by a nasal consonant

43. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Language-specific patterns
Nasals in Malay:
In Malay, all vowels and glides following a nasal and not separated from it by a non-nasal consonant are nasalized (until an obstruent, liquid, or glottal is reached)

44. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Language-specific patterns
English and Khmer (Cambodian) stops:

45. Phonetically Conditioned Variation Language-specific patterns
English and Khmer (Cambodian) stops:

46. Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription

47. Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription

48. Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription Inventory of Vowels

49. Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription Inventory of Consonants

50. Phonetic and Phonemic Transcription Let’s Practice!
Transcribe the following words
Phonemically
Phonetically
Don’t forget the predictable properties mentioned on the previous slides

51. Review Contrast, phonemes and allophones
Each language has a set of contrastive phonemes
Phonemes themselves can have predictable variants or allophones
There are two distinct levels of representation: phonemic level and phonetic level

52. Onset constraints and phonotactics Accidental and systematic gaps
Syllable
Defining the syllable
Onset constraints and phonotactics
Accidental and systematic gaps

53. Syllables Introduction
Definition:
A syllable consists of a ___________ _ and its associated non-syllabic (less sonorous) segments.
What speech sounds are more sonorous?

54. Syllables Introduction
Vowels are the most sonorous sound
Therefore, syllables usually have a vowel nucleus as their core
Less sonorous sounds may appear ___________ ___________

55. Syllables Introduction
Native speakers of a language demonstrate their awareness of the sonority values of segments and of the syllable
Examples:
Telegraph
Accident
Sprint

56. Onset Constraints and Phonotactics

57. Syllables Onset
Syllable: σ
Onset (O): Within a syllable, the longest segment of consonant to the ___of each nucleus

58. Syllables Rhyme: Nucleus & Coda
Rhyme (R): The ______and the ____of a syllable (e.g., [ɪnt] in Sprint)

59. Syllables Nucleus & Coda
Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the _______of a syllable (e.g., [q])
Coda (Co): The elements that _______the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [nt])

60. Syllables Constraints
Syllables comply with certain constraints that prohibit them from beginning with a sequence like [kstr] and thus results in the actual syllabification / ək.strim / (“extreme”)

61. Syllables English Syllables

62. Syllables Universal Tendencies
All languages have syllables
The shapes or syllables are governed by various kinds of constraints
But certain universal tendencies are observable

63. Syllables Universal Tendencies
Syllable nuclei usually consists of _________;
Syllables usually begin with onsets;
Syllables often end with codas;
Onsets and codas usually consist of one consonant.
Syllables usually take the shape ___________

64. Syllables Onset Constraints & Phonotactics
Isn’t it interesting!
Native speakers of ant language intuitively know that certain words from other languages sound unusual and they often adjust the segment sequences of these words to conform with the pronunciation requirements of their own language.
Example: Russian word vprog /fprɔk/ (value, or good)
[fəprɔk] – adding /ə/
[prɔk] – deleting /f/

65. Syllables Onset Constraints & Phonotactics
The set of constraints on how sequences of segments pattern
Forms part of a speakers knowledge of the phonology of his or her language

66. Syllables Onset Constraints & Phonotactics

67. Accidental and Systematic gaps

68. Syllables Accidental and Systematic Gaps
Gaps in the language’s vocabulary that correspond to ___________ but _________ forms called accidental gaps
Sometimes filled by borrowed words that fill the phonotactic constraints
Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroika

69. Syllables Accidental and Systematic Gaps
Gaps in the syllable structure of a language that result not by accident but from exclusion of certain sequences
Examples in English:
/bz/, /pt/ & /fp/
Unacceptable in one language but not necessarily another

70. Syllables Accidental and Systematic Gaps
Accidental gaps:
Sometimes filled by ___________ ___that fill the phonotactic constraints
Ex: Kodak, taco, Zen, perestroika
Systematic gaps:
English speakers often change the pronunciation of borrowed words that do not fit the phonotactic constraints
Ex: Psychology & pterodactyl

71. Syllables Language-specific phonotactics
Language-specific constraints, on the other hand, hold true for individual languages such as English, but they may not be found in other languages

72. Setting up the syllables
Review
Setting up the syllables
Syllabic phonology
Practice

73. Review Syllable & Onset
Onset (O): Within a syllable, the longest segment of consonant to the left of each nucleus that does not violate the phonotactic constraints of the language in question (e.g., [st] forms the onset of the second syllable in hamster)

74. Review Rhyme: Nucleus & Coda
Rhyme (R): The nucleus and the coda of a syllable (e.g., [ust] in the word boost)
Nucleus (N): a vocalic element that forms the core of a syllable (e.g., the vowel [A] is the nucleus of the first syllable in Patrick)
Coda (Co): The elements that follow the nucleus in the same syllable (e.g., [rf] in surfboard)

75. Review Practice
Sprint [sprɪnt]: σ Onset (O) Rhyme (R) Nucleus (N) Coda (Co) spr ɪ nt

76. Review Practice
First [fɜrst] σ Onset (O) Rhyme (R) Nucleus (N) Coda (Co) f ɜ rst

77. w ɜ rdz Review Practice Words [wɜrdz] σ Onset (O) Rhyme (R)
Nucleus (N) Coda (Co)
w ɜ rdz

78. Syllables Setting Up Syllables
Each language defines its own syllable structure through the interaction of universal and language-specific constraints

79. Syllables Setting Up Syllables
Step a: Nucleus-formation

80. Syllables Setting Up Syllables
Step b: Onset-formation

81. Syllables Setting Up Syllables
Step c: Coda-formation

82. Syllables Setting Up Syllables
Step d: Word-level construction

83. Syllables Setting Up Syllables

84. Syllables Syllabic Phonology
One reason that syllables are treated as units of phonological structure is that they are relevant to stating generalizations about the distribution of allophonic features

85. Syllables Syllabic Phonology: Aspiration

86. Syllables Syllabic Phonology: Aspiration
English ___________ are aspirated ___________
General
Statement

87. Syllables Syllabic Phonology: Vowel Length

88. Syllables Syllabic Phonology: Vowel Length
English vowels are ____when followed by a ______ ___________ in the ____ position of the same syllable
General
Statement

89. Features

90. Features Definition
Segments themselves are composed of even smaller, subsegmental, phonological units known as segments
Smallest unit of phonology
Basic building blocks of human speech sounds
Independent and coordinate phonetic elements

91. Features Independent and Coordinate

92. Features Features & Natural Classes

93. Features Features & Natural Classes

94. Features Features & Natural Classes

95. Features Features & Natural Classes
By ___________ examining the phonemic contrasts of a language, we can extract the ___________ ____and use these irreducible linguistic elements to describe the phonemic inventory

96. Features, Processes, & allophonic variation

97. Features Representation
Only a limited number of features – currently around twenty-four – have been proposed
Fewer are needed to characterize the sounds of English

98. Features Representation Major class features
[±consonantal]
[±syllabic]
[±sonorant]

99. Features Representation Manner features
[±continuant]
[±delayed release] ([±DR])
[±nasal]
[±lateral]

100. Features Representation Laryngeal Feature
[±voice]
[±spread glottis] ([±SG])
[±constricted glottis] ([±CG])

101. Features Representation Place of Articulation
[LABIAL]
[±round]
[CRONAL]
[±anterior]
[±strident]
[DORSAL]
[±high]
[±low]
[±back]
[±tense]
[±reduced]

102. Features Representation

103. Features Representation

104. Derivations

105. Derivations Definitions
Phonemic representations are equivalent to __________________ that speakers have of the words in their language
Also called underlying representation
Phonetic representations are equivalent to the __________________that are produced in the course of speech
Also called surface representations

106. Derivations Definitions
Resulting from the application of phonological rules to underlying representation
Going from mental representations to spoken language
Phonological rules:
Rules that derive phonetic representations from underlying representations, accounting for alterations among allophones

107. Derivations
The derivation of three phonetic representations from underlying representations are illustrated bellow: