1. Work Motivation
Chapter 12

2. Work Motivation: Overview
Five Critical Concepts in Motivation
Work Motivation Theories
Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
The Application of Motivational Strategies

3. Work Motivation: Definition
Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration
3 Dimensions
Direction
Intensity
Persistence

4. Work Motivation: 5 Concepts
Behavior: Action from which we infer motivation
Performance: Evaluation of behavior
Ability: Determinant of behavior
Situational Constraints: Determinant of behavior
Motivation: Determinant of behavior
Performance as a Function of BEHAVIOR
SITUATIONAL CONSTRAINTS x - =
ABILITY
MOTIVATION

5. Overview of Work Motivation Theories
Need theories
Cognitive theories
Job design theories
Behavioral theories

6. Work Motivation Theories: Need Hierarchy Theory
Based on sequential ordering of human needs that individuals seek to fulfill in serial progression.
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory

7. Work Motivation Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
(Self-fulfillment)
Esteem
(Recognition from others)
Social
(Company and acceptance of others)
Safety
(Security & shelter)
Physiological
(Air, food, water, etc.)

8. Work Motivation Theories: Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Self-Actualization
(Self-fulfillment)
Growth
Esteem
(Recognition from others)
Social
(Company and acceptance of others)
Relatedness
Existence
Safety
(Security & shelter)
Physiological
(Air, food, water, etc.)

9. Work Motivation Theories: McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory
People with a high need for achievement (high n’Ach) will put more effort into work than people without this need (low n’Ach)
High n’Achs tend to desire high levels of achievement whereas low n’Achs tend to only avoid failure
Low n’Achs can be trained to develop a need for achievement

10. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory
Equity Theory: Motivation theory based on the social comparison process of examining the ratio of inputs and outcomes between oneself and a comparison other.
Person compares themselves with Other
Person perceived what they input into job
Person perceives what they benefit from job
Person compares input-benefit ratio of him/herself to Other
Adams (1965)

11. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory
Equity occurs when each person has equal ratios (e.g., 50:50)
other’s-outcomes
other’s-inputs
self-outcomes
self-inputs vs
Underpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one’s own inputs and outcomes is lower than the ratio of a comparison other.
Overpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one's own inputs and outcomes is greater that the ration of comparison other.

12. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory
You: 50 Other: 50  Fair/Equitable
You: 50 Other: 75  Underpayment
You: 75 Other: 50  Overpayment

13. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory
Equity theory posits that people who perceive an inequity will try to reduce inequity
Behavior
Change inputs
Change outcomes
Get other to change inputs or outcomes
Quit job
Cognitive
Distort own inputs or outcomes
Distort Other’s inputs or outcomes
Change comparison Other

14. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory
Equity Theory Underpayment Inequity Predictions
Hourly Wages
Workers will decrease effort
Decreases in product quality and quantity
Piece Rate Wages
To compensate for underpayment, workers would produce more, but much lower quality

15. Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory
Equity Theory Overpayment Inequity Predictions
Hourly Wages
Workers should expend more effort (i.e., increase inputs)
Piece Rate Wages
Workers should expend more effort to produce fewer, but more high quality products

16. Work Motivation Theories: General Expectancy Theories
Vroom’s VIE theory – effort (force) is determined by:
Perceived effort-performance expectancies
Perceptions that performance will lead to certain outcomes (instrumentalities)
Valence of outcomes
effort
performance
outcome
expectancy
instrumentality

17. Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory
Motivation is derived from relationships among:
Valence
value of outcomes
Instrumentality
performance-reward contingencies
Expectancy
effort-performance contingencies
Force = Expectancy * Σ (Valences * Instrumentalities)

18. Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory
praise from parents
graduate school
good job
good grades
studying
expectancies
instrumentalities
lack of social life
valences
less friends
no fun
effort
performance
outcome

19. Work Motivation Theories: Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
People set goals for themselves and they are
motivated to work toward these goals because
achieving them is rewarding
Goals affect task performance by
directing attention and action,
mobilizing energy expenditure or effort,
prolonging effort overtime (persistence) and
motivating the individual to develop relevant strategies for goal attainment

20. Work Motivation Theories: Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
Performance is best when:
Goals are specific
Goals are challenging
Workers have necessary ability
Rewards are clearly understood and provided
Management supports goal attainment
Provides necessary time & resources
Goals are internalized and accepted by employees
Feedback is provided

21. Work Motivation Theories: Self-Regulation Theories
Major components
Goals
Self-monitoring or self-evaluation
Role of feedback
Self-efficacy
Goal revision
Empirical tests of the theory
Evaluation of the theory

22. Work Motivation Theories: Job-based Theories
Source of motivation is primarily in the content of the jobs employees perform
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (also referred to as Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
Job Characteristics Theory

23. Work Motivation Theories: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Meeting lower-level needs will prevent workers from becoming dissatisfied; they do not influence work motivation
hygiene factors
e.g., pay, fringe benefits, relations with coworkers, physical working conditions
Only conditions that allow people to fill upper-level needs for esteem and self-actualization will increase work motivation
Motivator factors
e.g., level of challenge and discretion, intrinsic interest, opportunities to be creative

24. Critical Psychological states Personal and work outcomes
Job Characteristics Theory
Core job dimensions
Critical Psychological states
Personal and work outcomes
Task identity
Experienced meaningfulness
Satisfaction
Motivation
Quality of Work
Low turnover and absenteeism
Skill variety
Task significance
Experienced responsibility
Autonomy
Knowledge of results
Feedback
Growth need strength

25. Job Characteristics Theory
task identity
skill variety
task significance S
autonomy X
feedback X =
motivation 3

26. Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory
Based on principles of behaviorism
Reinforcement
a stimulus that increases the probability of any given behavior
Punishment
consequences that make a behavior less likely

27. Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory
Schedules of reinforcement
continuous
intermittent
fixed interval
variable interval
fixed ratio
variable ratio

28. Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
Distal construct theories: Exert indirect effects on behavior
Proximal construct theories: Begin with the individual’s goals and characteristics of the workplace that directly influence behavior.
Genetic bases of motivation

29. Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
Genetics/Heredity
Will to achieve from Big 5 Personality Theory
Needs/Personality/Interests
Need hierarchy theory
Equity theory
Motives
Expectancy theory
Cognitive choice
Goal-setting theory
Goals
Feedback/ Expectation discrepancy
Self-regulation theory
Job characteristic theory
Core job attributes
Distal constructs Proximal Constructs

30. Seven Practices to Raise Motivation
Ensure that workers motives and values are appropriate for the jobs on which they are placed
Make jobs attractive and consistent with workers’ motives and values.
Define work goals that are clear, challenging, attractive, and attainable.

31. Seven Practices to Raise Motivation
Provide workers with the personnel and material resources that facilitate their effectiveness.
Create supportive social environments.
6. Reinforce performance.
7. Harmonize all these elements into a consistent socio-technical system.

32. Application of Motivational Strategies
There is no “best” theory.
It may be necessary to match motivation strategies with varying organizational context.