1. Identifying Content and Specifying Behaviors
Chapter 4
Instructors and Their Jobs
W.R. Miller and M.F. Miller

2. Let’s Think About This What should be taught in a course?
How should it be presented to students?

3. Occupational Analysis
Reducing whole into parts
Dissect job into skills, functions and competencies
Job tasks identified
Meet with workers
Observe and interview workers
Submit tentative list to workers/supervisors
Tasks analyzed to identify steps
Content translated into performance objectives
Analysis = reducing a complex whole into component parts. Occupational analysis = dissecting of selected jobs into component skills, functions, and competencies for purpose of tailoring instruction and training to meet specific job needs.
Identify knowledge and skills needed for particular job. Industry then presents this information to educational community and they work together to develop a curriculum that will teach students the skills they will use regularly in the workforce.
Worker traits, attitudes, and skills must be made an integral part of the overall curriculum.
Analysis is practiced daily by instructors as they prepare demonstrations, lectures, laboratory assignments and so forth.
Three major steps are taken to analyze an occupation for the purpose of developing an educational program:
Job tasks must be identified
Tasks must be analyzed to identify steps of procedures, knowledge, equipment, safety precautions, and worker traits.
Content must be translated into performance objectives.
The key is identification of job tasks.
Three primary approaches to the identification and verification of job tasks are:
Meeting with groups of workers in a given job or occupation
Observing and interviewing individual workers on the job
Submission of a tentative list of tasks to workers and/or supervisors.

4. Job Analysis Performance steps
Specific knowledge for effective performance
Specialized tools and equipment
General related information
Safety information
Critical attitudes essential for successful employment and advancement
After job tasks are identified and verified, they must be analyzed to determine:

5. Let’s Try It Our job = changing a flat tire Performance steps
Specific knowledge for effective performance
Specialized tools and equipment
General related information
Safety information
Critical attitudes essential for successful employment and advancement

6. Developing a Curriculum
DACUM
Approach to occupational analysis
Based on three assumptions:
Workers can define and describe job
Jobs can be described in terms of tasks
All tasks require knowledge and attitudes
DACUM, an approach to occupational analysis. The process has been widely adopted throughout the United States and in a number of other countries.
The DACUM process is based on three assumptions:
Expert workers can define and describe their job more accurately than anyone else.
Jobs can be described in terms of tasks that successful workers in that occupation perform.
All tasks require certain knowledge and attitudes.

7. Curriculum
A curriculum is the sum total of the learning experiences for which the school has responsibility.
The curriculum may be subdivided into instructional programs, courses, and units of instruction.
Curriculum includes activities designed to help students mature in terms of attitudes, social skills, and personality as well as traditional courses.

8. DACUM Panel of Experts Steps in analysis Identify occupation’s duties
Identify tasks in precise action terms
Review task statements for completeness
Structure task statements in logical sequence
Final review
DACUM depends upon a panel of expert workers who analyze an occupation in terms of workers’ duties and tasks. Under the guidance of a facilitator, the panel members perform a systematic analysis of their occupation.
Steps involved in the analysis include:
Identification of the occupation’s duties (general areas of competence).
Identification of tasks that comprise each duty in precise action terms (task statements).
Review of task statements for completeness and accuracy.
Structuring of task statements into a logical sequence.
Final review.

9. Traditional Occupational Analysis
Skillful workers are observed
Observer lists tasks and subtasks
Interviews are conducted to clarify
Observer draws upon literature
Survey instrument developed and verified
Skillful workers are observed as they perform job tasks.
The observer lists work tasks (jobs) and subtasks (operations) being performed.
Interviews with workers are then conducted to clarify procedures for performing tasks and identifying knowledge needed to perform and make job decisions.
In the identification process, the individual making the occupational analysis typically draws upon literature related to the occupation.
Results are often prepared as a survey instrument, which expert workers or supervisors use to verify skills, knowledge, and attitudes from which the instructional program is designed.

10. Completing an Analysis
Determine blocks – Step 1
Identifies categories of content
Listed by work processes or equipment
Doing content – Step 2
List skills, processes, and procedures of each block
Knowing content – Step 3
Identify necessary concepts and information
Occupations and their major work segments are divided into blocks, which are major content areas.
For example, chef – dietary needs, food safety, cooking
Each block is composed of at least two kinds of content—doing and knowing
Doing – refers to specific skills, operations, or procedures that occur repeatedly in daily work – cutting food
Knowing – consists of concepts and useful information directly related to performance – knowing how to sautee

11. Doing Content – Step 2 List specific skills, processes, and procedures
List in terms of action
List in order of occurrence
Be specific
Evaluating elements:
Contain steps in given order?
Appropriate length for a demonstration/lesson?
Only one recommended way to perform?
Wording specific enough to convey behavior?
List specific skills, processes, and procedures found in each block
Involves operations or skills that remain basically the same and are used repeatedly by the worker – e.g., cutting, shaping, forming, and grinding in metalwork
List in terms of action or doing behavior (mix ingredients, stir contents)
All elements should be listed in order of occurrence. Longer elements should be broken down.
Wording should be specific.
When evaluating elements of doing content, the following questions should be asked:
Does the element contain steps to be performed in a given order?
Is the element of the appropriate length for a demonstration or lesson?
Is there only one recommended way to perform the element?
Is the wording specific enough to convey the behavior to be developed?

12. Knowing Content – Step 3 Identify necessary concepts and information
Essential to perform with understanding and confidence
Allows use of judgment in situations that vary
Prioritizing essential content
Identifying basic concepts
Determining student capabilities
Determining affective behaviors
Many of the knowing elements are essential to performing a task with understanding and confidence.
Knowledge of the knowing content allows the worker to use judgment in situations that vary from routine procedures.
Prioritize – While all knowledge is useful in certain situations, some is more useful than others.
Identify – Effective instructors realize the importance of basic concepts and use them as the cornerstone of instruction.
Capabilities – The difference in the general education background of students makes the analyzer’s job more difficult.
Behaviors – Identification and development of behavior in the affective domain (good attitudes) must be given greater attention. Appropriate affective behaviors must be identified and developed.

13. Content Inventory Group closely-related doing and knowing
Create outline to avoid omitting essential information
Group doing and knowing together.
Create an outline of essential steps and information so that nothing is omitted.

14. Course Outline Purpose – overall objectives and where fits in program
Broad instructional goals
List of units
Method of instruction
Explanation of evaluation
Explanation of grade computation
List of resources
Master plan – blue print for teaching a course
A good course outline will provide you with a comprehensive set of guidelines for doing the more detailed week-to-week and day-to-day planning for a course.
Should contain:
Purpose – a statement of purpose that explains the overall objectives of the course and where the course fits into the program curriculum
A list of broad instructional goals for the course explaining precisely what students will learn.
List of units that make up the course
Explanation of the method(s) you will use to instruct students in the course.
Explanation of how you will compute students’ grades.
List of resources needed for the course, such as required textbooks, expendable supplies, teaching aids and tools.

15. Translating Content into Objectives
Tasks and knowledge are transformed into performance objectives
Focus attention on learner, time, and learning activities
Establish performance level

16. Goals and Objectives Goals – broad statements of desired end results
Objectives – clear statements of instructional intent
Helpful in lesson planning
Useful in selecting learning aids
Beneficial in determining assignments
Valuable in planning and developing tests
Beneficial in summarizing and reporting results
Clearly defined objectives provide the basis for selecting or designing instructional materials, content, or methods.
Test items designed to measure whether important instructional outcomes have been accomplished can be selected or created only when those instructional outcomes have been made explicit.
Provide students with a means to organize their own efforts toward accomplishment of those objectives.

17. Performance Objectives
Specify behaviors students must exhibit at end
Elements:
Audience – the who
Behavior – performance required of learner
Conditions – setting or circumstances
Degree – basis upon which performance is judged
Example:
With the aid of a sales tax chart (C), the student (A) computes the sales tax for purchases of $.23, $1.25, $2.79, and $51.50 (B) with 100% accuracy (D).
Audience – Your objectives had better say “The student will be able to”
Behavior – clear and concise statement of performance required of learner – use action verb, can be related to knowing as well as doing; what a learner is expected to be able to DO; MUST BE OBSERVABLE
Conditions – the setting or set of circumstances within which the learner is to perform or demonstrate competency
With the aid of references, Without the aid of references, With the aid of a calculator, Given a list of
What will the learner be allowed to use? What will the learner be denied? Under what conditions will you expect the desired performance to occur? Are there any skills that you are specifically NOT trying to develop? Does the objective exclude such skills?
Degree – criterion of acceptable performance by describing how well the learner must perform in order to be considered acceptable
time limits, accuracy, quality

18. Types of Objectives Psychomotor – physical skills
Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height, the student will be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam steadily, without falling off, within a six second time span.
Cognitive – knowledge
Given a sentence written in the past tense, the student will be able to rewrite it in future tense with no errors in tense or tense contradiction.
Affective – attitudes (hardest to assess)
Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people from different races, the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist completed by non-team members.

19. How to Write Objectives
Use top down approach
Prepare course objectives
Write objectives
Prepare objectives for each topic
Identify what student should be able to do
Draft and revise – use action words
Cover all levels of thinking (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

20. Effective Performance Objectives
Must be well-written
Checklist:
Audience
Behavior
Condition
Degree
Precision and clarity
Completeness, relevance, and achievable
Must be very specific. Describe precisely what the learner is expected to do.
Outcome based – state what learner should be able to do after instruction is complete
Measurable – outcomes can be measured; objectives should be seen or heard
Describe student behavior – relate what student should be able to do
Precision and clarity – uses action words that preclude misinterpretation
Completeness – develops a separate statement for each performance objective to be achieved – cannot have a prerequisite

21. Effective Objective?
At the end of the course in Engineering Graphics you, the student, will know how to use a computer-aided-design software.
More effective:
At the end of the course in Engineering Graphics you, the student, will be able to draw a multi-view representation of a solid object using a computer-aided-design software.

22. Sample Objectives
By the end of the course, the student will be able to list Newton’s three laws of motion.
By the end of the course, the student will be able to explain Newton’s three laws of motion in his/her own words.
By the end of the course, the student will be able to calculate the kinetic energy of a projectile.
Using Bloom’s Taxonomy – Knowledge, Comprehension, Application

23. Sample Objectives (cont.)
By the end of the course, the student will be able to differentiate between potential and kinetic energy.
By the end of this unit, the student will be able to design an original homework problem dealing with the principle of conservation of energy.
By the end of the course, the student will be able to determine whether using conservation of energy or conservation of momentum would be more appropriate for solving a dynamics problem.
Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation