1. Individuals & Groups in Organizations
Motivation at Work; Stress Management
Frances Jørgensen

2. Agenda What is motivation? Why study motivation?
Types of motivation theories

3. Defining Motivation
The willingness to do something, conditioned by this action’s ability to satisfy some need for the individual; the forces within a person that affect his/her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior.
A need is a physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain outcomes appear attractive; deficiencies that energize or trigger behaviors to satisfy our needs.
(Robbins, 2003; McShane & Von Glinow, 2002)

4. Content and Process Theories of Motivation
Content theories
explain why people have different needs at different times
Process theories
describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior

5. Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory Herzberg’s Motivation-
Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
Alderfer’s
ERG Theory
Herzberg’s Motivation-
Hygiene Theory
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Self-
Actualization
Growth
Motivators
Need for
Achievement
Esteem
Need for
Power
Belongingness
Relatedness
Hygiene
Need for
Affiliation
Safety
Existence
Physiological

6. What motivates you?

7. Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X: employees dislike work and will try to avoid it, are lazy, dislike responsibility and will seek formal direction, and must be coerced through punishment to perform; security most important factor associated with work.
Theory Y: employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction when committed to the goals (McGregor, 1960).
How can these theories be related to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

8. DK study on motivational factors of work
for highly educated young adults

9. The use content theories at work
Match rewards with employee needs
Offer employees a choice of rewards
people have different needs at different times
Limit use of financial rewards as a source of motivation

10. Process Theories of Motivation

11. Expectancy Theory in Practice
Increasing the E-to-P expectancy
training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback
Increasing the P-to-O expectancy
Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance
Increasing outcome valences
Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes

12. Equity Theory Outcome/input ratio Comparison other Equity evaluation
inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill)
outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay)
Comparison other
person/people we compare ratio with
not easily identifiable
Equity evaluation
compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other

13. Consequences of Inequity
Change inputs
Change outcomes
Change perceptions
Leave the field
Act on the comparison other
Change the comparison other

14. Effective Goal Setting
Specific
Relevant
Challenging
Task
Effort
Task
Performance
Commitment
Participation
Challenging

15. Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
High
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Task Performance
Low
Moderate
Challenging
Impossible
Goal Difficulty

16. Types of Rewards in the Workplace
Membership and seniority
Job status
Competencies
Performance
© Corel Corp.

17. Membership/Seniority Based Rewards
Fixed wages, seniority increases
Advantages
guaranteed wages may attract job applicants
seniority-based rewards reduce turnover
Disadvantages
doesn’t motivate job performance
discourages poor performers from leaving
may act as golden handcuffs

18. Job Status-Based Rewards
Includes job evaluation and status perks
Advantages:
job evaluation tries to maintain pay equity
motivates competition for promotions
Disadvantages:
employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources
creates psychological distance across hierarchy
Inconsistent with flatter organizations

19. Competency-Based Rewards
Pay increases with competencies acquired or demonstrated
Skill-based pay
Pay increases with skill modules learned
Advantages
More flexible work force, better quality, consistent with employability
Disadvantages
Potentially subjective, higher training costs

20. Performance-Based Rewards
Stock ownership
Stock options
Profit sharing
Organizational
rewards
Team
rewards
Gainsharing
Bonuses
Piece rate
Commissions
Royalties
Merit pay
Individual
rewards

21. Team and Organizational Rewards
Gainsharing plans
based on cost reductions and increased labor efficiency
ESOPs
employees own company stock
Stock options
right to purchase company shares at a future date at a predetermined price
Profit sharing
employees receive share of profits

22. Problems with Performance Rewards
Shift attention away from motivation job itself to extrinsic rewards
Create a psychological distance with reward giver
Discourage risk taking
Used as quick fixes

23. Improving Reward Effectiveness
Link rewards to performance
Ensure rewards are relevant
Team rewards for interdependent jobs
Ensure rewards are valued
Beware of unintended consequences
© Corel Corp.

24. Job Design
Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
Technology influences, but does not determine, job design
Employability affects job design

25. Job Characteristics Model
Core Job
Characteristics
Critical
Psychological
States
Outcomes
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Meaningfulness
Work
motivation
Growth
satisfaction
General
effectiveness
Autonomy
Responsibility
Feedback
from job
Knowledge
of results
Individual
differences
Hackman & Oldman, 1980

26. Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement
Operate Camera
Job 2
Operate Sound
Job 3
Report Story
Job Enlargement
Job 1
Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Job 2
Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Job 3
Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story

27. Job Enrichment Strategies
Empowering employees
giving employees more autonomy
feeling of control and self-efficacy
Forming natural work units
completing an entire task
assigning employees to specific clients
Establishing client relationships
employees put in direct contact with clients

28. Elements of Self-Leadership
Personal
Goal Setting
Constructive
Thought
Patterns
Designing
Natural
Rewards
Self-
Monitoring
Self-
Reinforce-
ment
Self-Leadership: We are self-directed and self-motivated to perform a task.

29. Stress Management
Stress is an adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. Sources include: threat of job loss; job mismatch; conflicting expectations; role ambiguity; role overload; fear/responsibility; working conditions; working relationships, alienation.
Signs of stress in the workplace include absenteeism, job turnover, lower productivity, and increased mistakes. Stress-related disorders include tension and migraine headaches, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, sleep disorders, problems with concentration, appetite, etc.

30. General Adaptation Syndrome
Stage 1
Alarm Reaction
Stage 2
Resistance
Stage 3
Exhaustion
Normal
Level of
Resistance
Selye, 1974

31. Stressors and Stress Outcomes
Work
Stressors
Physical
environment
Role-related
Interpersonal
Organizational
Individual
Differences
Consequences
of Stress
Physiological
Behavioral
Psychological
Stress
Nonwork
Stressors

32. Role-Related Stressors Interpersonal Stressors
Role conflict
Interrole conflict
Intrarole conflict
Person-role conflict
Role ambiguity
Uncertain duties, authority
Workload
Too much/too little work
Task control
Machine pacing
Monitoring equipment
No work schedule control
Working Conditions
(Sexual) Harassment
Workplace Violence
Corporate Culture
Non-work Stressors
Time-based conflict
Family
Financial problems
Living Conditions
Illness/Substance abuse

33. Stress and Occupations
Accountant
Artist
Auto Mechanic
Forester
Hospital manager
Physician (GP)
Psychologist
School principal
Police officer
Tel. operator
U.S. President
Waiter/waitress
Low-Stress
Occupations
Medium-Stress
Occupations
High-Stress
Occupations

34. Individual differences and stress
Individuals perceive situations differently
Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Different threshold levels of resistance to stressor
Store of energy
Use different stress coping strategies

35. Consequences of Distress
Physiological consequences
cardiovascular diseases
ulcers, sexual dysfunction, headaches
Behavioral consequences
work performance, accidents, decisions
absenteeism -- due to sickness and flight
workplace aggression
Psychological Consequences
moodiness, depression, emotional fatigue

36. Role-Related Stressors
Job Burnout Process
Interpersonal and
Role-Related Stressors
Emotional
Exhaustion
Physiological,
psychological,
and behavioral
consequences
Depersonalization
Reduced Personal
Accomplishment

37. Managing Employee Stress
Existing organizational systems, procedures and policies that can be used to address emp. stress:
supportive organizational culture; training and development; job analysis; organizational development; career planning and development; performance appraisal; compensation and benefits.
Efforts aimed directly at stress prevention/ management:
Physical fitness & wellness programs
EAP’s