1. 1 McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. O v e r v i e w Primate Evolution This chapter introduces students to the study of the fossil record using geological techniques. Then it discusses the earliest primate species which lived during the Eocene and Miocene.

2. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2 Chronology The history of vertebrate life on earth is divided into three eras: Paleozoic; Mesozoic; and Cenozoic. –Each era is divided into periods. –Each period is divided into epochs. Anthropologists are concerned with the Cenozoic era, which includes two periods: Tertiary and Quaternary.

3. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3 Chronology (cont.) –The Tertiary period has five epochs: Paleocene; Eocene; Oligocene; Miocene; and Pliocene. –A wide range of small mammals, some possibly ancestral to primates, appeared during the Paleocene. –Prosimian-like fossils abound in strata dating to the Eocene. –The first anthropoid fossils date to the late Eocene and the early Oligocene. –Hominoids became widespread during the Miocene. –Hominids first appeared during the late Miocene or early Pliocene. –The Quaternary period has two epochs: Pleistocene and Holocene.

4. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4 Early Primates Arboreal theory –Primates became primates by adapting to life in trees. –Enhanced sight (depth perception) –Grasping hands and feet Visual predation hypothesis (Cartmill 1972, 1992) –Binocular vision, grasping hands and feet, and reduced claws developed because they facilitated the capture of insects. –Early primates first adapted to life in the bushy forest undergrowth and low tree branches.

5. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5 Early Cenozoic Primates The earliest primates date to the first part of the Cenozoic (65-54 m.y.a.). The Eocene (54-38 m.y.a.) was the epoch of prosimians with at least 60 different genera in two families. –The omomyid family lived in North America, Europe, and Asia and may be ancestral to all anthropoids. –The adapid family was ancestral to the lemur-loris line.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6 Anthropoids –Anthropoids branched off from the prosimians during the Eocene. –Anthropoid eyes are rotated more forward compared to prosimians. –Anthropoids have a fully enclosed bony eye socket. –Anthropoids have a dry nose separate from the upper lip. –Anthropoids have molar cusps.

7. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 Oligocene Anthropoids During the Oligocene (38-23 m.y.a.), anthropoids were the most numerous primates. The parapithecid family may be ancestral to the New World monkeys. The propliopithecid family may be ancestral to Old World monkeys, apes, and humans.

8. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 Proconsul The earliest hominoid fossils date to the Miocene epoch (23-5 m.y.a.). Proconsul was the most abundant anthropoid in the early Miocene. Its teeth have similarities with modern apes, but below the neck the skeleton is more monkey-like. Their teeth suggest that they ate fruits and leaves. Proconsul probably contained the last common ancestor shared by Old World monkeys and the apes.

9. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9 Proconsul (cont.) Monkeys replaced Proconsul in the late Miocene. –Monkeys probably were superior at eating leaves. –Monkey molars developed lophs, which enhanced their ability to chew leaves. Traits –Primitive traits are those passed on unchanged from an ancestor. –Derived traits are those that develop in a particular taxon after a split from a common ancestor.

10. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 10 Afropithecus and Kenyapithecus Afropithecus is a large, slow-moving Miocene hominoid with large projecting front teeth from northern Kenya (18-16 m.y.a.) Recent research suggests that the two species of Kenyapithecus should be reclassified as Equatorius. Equatorius and Afropithecus are probable stem hominoids, species somewhere on the evolutionary line near the origins of the modern ape group that are too primitive to be considered direct ancestors of living apes and humans.

11. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11 Sivapithecus Sivapithecus belongs to the ramapithecid genera along with Gigantopithecus. Sivapithecus is now believed to be ancestral to the modern orangutan.

12. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 12 Gigantopithecus Gigantopithecus is the largest primate that ever lived, some standing over 10 feet tall and weighing 1,200 pounds. Since it died out around 400,000 years ago, it coexisted with Homo erectus. Some people believe it is still alive today as the yeti and bigfoot.

13. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 13 Dryopithecus Dryopithecus lived in Europe during the middle and late Miocene. This group probably includes the common ancestor of the lesser apes (gibbons and siamangs) and the great apes. Dryopithecus has the Y-5 arrangement of molar cusps typical of Dryopithecus and of hominoids.

14. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14 Oreopithecus Oreopithecus bambolii lived between 9-7 m.y.a. and spent much of its time standing upright and shuffling short distances. Its big toe splayed out 90 degrees from the other toes.

15. McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 15 A Missing Link? Kottak refers to the last ancestral population held commonly by humans, gorillas, and chimpanzees as Hogopans (after the genus names of these three). The lines of the orangutans, gibbons, and siamangs split off several million years earlier. The hominid line almost certainly diverged from those of chimps and gorillas late in the Miocene epoch, between 7 and 5 m.y.a. Hogopans probably split into the three separate lines leading to gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans no more than 8 m.y.a., with each group moving into separate niches: equatorial forest-dwelling and eating bulk vegetation (gorilla), Central African woodland-dwelling frugivores (chimpanzee), and open grassland (hominids).