1. An overview which raises more questions than provides answers
Learning Theories
An overview which
raises more questions than provides answers

2. Learning theories must be understood in context
Politics Science
& Power Epistemology
Schooling
teaching
Learning

3. Main areas of the understanding of learning (Illeris 2009)
Biology
Philosophy
Psychology
Social sciences
External conditions
Internal conditions
Learning
On the top is placed the basis of learning theory, i.e. the areas of knowledge and understanding which must underlie the development of a comprehensive and coherent theory of learning. These include all the psychological, (philosophical) biological and social theories and perspectives.
Under this the central box depicting learning itseelf including the different types of learning as well as learning barriers.
Further there are the specific internal and external conditions which are not only influencing but also directly involved in learning.
Finally the possible application of learning .
Application

4. 3 main concepts of learning
Cognition
Behaviour
Activity
(practice)

5. Learning Theories timeline(overlapping)
Behaviorists_____________________________
Pavlov ( )
Watson ( 1878 – 1958)
Thorndike (1874 – 1949)
Skinner ( 1904 – 1990)
Bandura ( )
Constructivists_____________________________________________________
Piaget ( ),
Socio-cultural________________________________
Dewey (1859 – 1952)
Vygotsky ( )
Bruner ( )
( Cognitive Load Theory Sweller 1988) !!
CulturalHistoricalActivityTheory_______
Vygotsky (1978 English reintroduction)
Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (1978 Berkley)
Michael Cole (? Ph.d: 1962)
Jean Lave (? Ph.d :1968 -)
Yrje Engeström

6. Another way of mapping theories
Outside control Individual initiative
Behaviorism constructivism
Direct instruction Problem based learning
Testing Projects
Performance/outcome Diversity/Culture
based education CHAT

7. Behaviorism definition
Behaviorism is a theory of learning focusing on observable behavior and discounting mental activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behavior.
Behaviorists call this method of learning ”conditioning”

8. Behaviorism
The ideas of behaviorism have their roots in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.
It was promoted by psychologists who wanted to break free of philosophy and establish psychology as a real science which involved detailed objective observation and scientific measurement
Any consideration of mental proces which is by definition unobservable fell outside their interest.

9. Behaviorism
Early behaviorists used animals for experiments with stimulus- response.
The stimulus-response can also be seen in humans. In situations where immediate response is required, practice situations are repeated endlessly until the soldier, firefighter or airline pilot wil make correct resonses in a given situation.
Responsive practice can be explained in terms of reinforcement of particular neural pathways in the brain.
Main objection to behaviorism in general education concerns Who has the right to condition whom for what purpose !

10. Pavlov & classical conditioning
Pavlov was a Russian physiologist.
The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs.
During his research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated when they ate, even saw food. In his initial experiment he sounded a bell at the time when food was presented to the dogs. The sound of the bell became for the dogs an indication that food was about to be presented and eventually the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell irrespective of the presence of food. The dogs had been conditioned to respond to the sound of the bell producing saliva. Their behavior had been successfully modified.
The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the conditioned reflex The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking.

11. Skinner & operant conditioning
The second type of conditioning is operant conditioning, the most important type of behaviorist learning. It is more flexible in its nature and potentially more powerful.
It involves reinforcing a behavior by rewarding it.
Skinner is the most famous psychologist in the field of operant conditioning.
Skinner maintained that rewards and punishments control the majority of human behaviors, and that the principles of operant conditioning can explain all human learning.

12. Skinner´s political visions
Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control – a technology of human behavior – could help problems unsolved
One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself. Skinner supported the use of positive reinforcement a means of coercion, citing Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Emile: or On Education as an example of freedom literature that "did not fear the power of positive reinforcement". Skinner's book, Walden Two, presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society, which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems( Brave New World)

13. Bandura & Social learning theory
Bandura is a psychologist. He was professor at Stanford University.
Bandura was influential in the transition between behaviorism and social learning theory.
Social Learning Theory
The initial phase of Bandura's research analyzed the foundations of human learning and the propensity of children and adults to model their own behavior on that observed in others.
During a period dominated by behaviorism, Bandura believed the sole behavioral modifiers of reward and punishment in classical operant conditioning were inadequate as a framework, and that many human behaviors were learnt from other humans.(cf Lave) In 1986, Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive Theory.

14. Thorndike
American psychologist worked at Teachers College at Columbia University, studying human learning, education, and mental testing.
Thorndike put his testing expertise to work for the United States Army during World War 1.
Among Thorndike's most notable contributions involved his research on how cats learned to escape from puzzle boxes and his related formulation of the law of effect. The law of effect states that responses that are closely followed by satisfying consequences become associated with the situation, and are more likely to recur when the situation is subsequently encountered. If the responses are followed by aversive consequences, associations to the situation become weaker. Thorndike interpreted the findings in terms of associations.
A similar, though radically reworked idea was taken up by B.F. Skinner in his formulation of operant conditioning The associative analysis went on to figure largely in behavioral work through mid-century, and is now evident in some modern work in behavior.
Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:
The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or punishment.
The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern the recurrence.
The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are strengthened through repetition.

15. Constructivism comes under the broad heading of Cognitive Science
Constructivism is not a brand new idea !
The foundation for the current interest in constructivism can be traced to the work of (among others)
Dewey, J.( 1929): My pedagogical Creed . Washington, DC: Progressive Education Association.
Piaget, J.(1952): The origins of Intelligence in Children.New York: International Universities Press
Bruner, J.(1966): Toward a Theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L.S.(1978): Mind in society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge. MA: Harvard University Press.
Washington, DC: Progressive Education Association.

16. Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of knowledge (epistemology that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. During infancy, it is an interaction between their experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Piaget called these systems of knowledge schemata.
Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, although
Piaget's theory of constructivist and experiental learning has had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and is an underlying theme of many education reform movements e.g learner-centred approach ( often promoted by the World Bank)

17. The fundamental processes of learning ( in a constructivist learning perspective)
Content Incentive
acquisition
Individual
The first important condition to realise is that all learning implies the integration of two very important processes, namely an external interaction proces between the learner and his and her social, cultural and material environment AND an internal psychological process of elaboration and acquisition. Many learning theories deal with only one of these processes, which of course does not mean that they are wrong or worthless as both processes can be studied separately. This may be said of traditional behaviorist and cognitive learning theories. It can equally be said of the more extreme versions of social learning theories which drwas attention to external processes alone. It seems evident that both processes must be actively involved if any learning is to take place.
Therefore in the model the external interaction process is depicted as a vertical double arrow between the environment which is the general basis and therefore placed at the bottom and the individual who is the specific learner and therefore placed at the top.
Next the horizontal double arrow signifies the internal acquisition process of the individual learner and is therefore placed on the top of the interaction process. It is a process of integrated interplay betweeen 2 equal psychological functions namely the function of managing the learning content and the incentive function of providing and directing the necessary mental energy that runs the process.
As can be seen these three angles depict three spheres or dimensions of learning and it is the core claim of understanding that all learning will always involve these three dimensions.
Environment

18. Balance and sensitivity
The three dimensions of learning all learning will involve these three dimensions
MMe
Content:
Knowledge
Understanding
Skills
Incentive:
Motivation
Emotion
Volition
Balance and sensitivity
Meaning and ability
andand
Now the core claim is that all learning will always involve these three dimensions.
The content dimension concerns what is learned. This is usually described as knowledge and skills, but also many other things such as opinions, insight, meaning, attitudes, values, ways of behaviour, methods, strategies etc may be involved as learning content and contribute to building up the understanding and the capacity of the learner. The endeavour of the learner is to construct meaning and ability to deal with the challenges of practical life and thereby an overall personal functionality is developed.
The incentive dimension provides and directs the mental energy that is necessary for the learning process to take place . It comprises such elements as feelings, emotions, motivation, volition and identity. Its ultimate function is to secure the continous mental balance of the learnerr and thereby it simultaneously develops a personal sensivity.
The two dimensions are always initiated by impulses from the interaction process and integrated in the internal process of elaboration and acquisition. Therefore the learning is always obsessed with the incentives at stake, e.g. whether the learning is driven by desire, interest, necessity or compulsion. Correspondingly the incentives are always influenced by the content, e.g. new information can change the incentive condition. There is thus close correspondence between the cognitive and the emotional (Vygotsky 1978).
The interaction provides the impulses that initiate the learning process. This may take place as perception, transmission, experience, imitation, activity, participation etc. It served the personal integration in communities and society and therefore builds up the sociality of the learner. However, this building up necessarily takes place through the other two dimensions,
Thus the triangle depicts what may be described as the tension field of learning between the development of functionality, sensibility and sociality. Each dimension includes a mental as well as a bodily side. Actually learning begins with the body and takes place through the brain which is also part of the body and only gradually is the mental side separated out as a specific but never independent area or function (Piaget 1952)
Interaction:
Action
Communication
Cooperation
INTEGRATION

19. Example from School Life
During a chemistry lesson a teacher is explaining a chemical process. The students are supposed to listen and learn;
but maybe:
The interaction does not function because the teacher´s explanation is not good enough.
The student´s incentive is inadequate due to lack of mental and bodily balance( e.g. inadequate nutrition, emotional disturbance)
The student´s prior knowledge is inadequate
Thus acquisition is not only a cognitive matter. There is also another area of function involved concerning the students´attitudes to the intended learning: their interests and mobilisation of mental energy, i.e. the incentive dimension.
In a school situation, focus is usually on the learning content; in the case described it is on the nature of the chemical process concerned. However, the incentive function is also still crucial, i.e. how the situation is experienced, what sorts of feelings and motivation are involved, and thus the nature and the strength of the mental energy that is mobilised. The value and durability of the learning result is closely related to the incentive dimension of the learning process.
Further both the content and the incentive are crucially dependent on the interaction process between the learner and the social, societal, cultural and material environment.
The students might learn something else; that schooling is useless, teachers are worhtless and punitive, they themselves are stupid etc etc.

20. Piaget Constructivism
Piaget was born in 1896 in Switzerland.
Piaget developed an interest in biology and the natural world. He was educated at the University of Neuchâtel, and studied briefly at the University of Zürich. There he published two philosophical papers.
His interest in pscychoanalysis at the time a burgeoning strain of psychology, can also be dated to this period.
Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, France after his graduation and he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles Street School for Boys. The school was run by Alfred Binet (intelligence test) and Piaget assisted in the marking of Binet's intelligence tests and he noticed that young children consistently gave wrong answers to certain questions.
Piaget did not focus so much on the fact of the children's answers being wrong, but that young children consistently made types of mistakes that older children and adults did not. This led him to the theory that young children's cognitive processes are inherently different from those of adults.
Ultimately, he was to propose a global theory of cognitive developmental stages in which individuals exhibit certain common patterns of cognition in each period of development. Piaget had three children, whom Piaget studied from infancy.
In 1964, Piaget was invited to serve as chief consultant at two conferences at Cornell University and University of California The conferences addressed the relationship of cognitive studies and curriculum development and strived to conceive implications of recent investigations of children's cognitive development for curricula

21. Piaget is inspired by and tries to integrate:
Dewey´s pragmatism
Freud´s psychoanalysis
Durkheim´s social life
Hall + Binet´s biological conception of the child

22. Piaget: Schemas and stages
The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as:
Sensormotor stage from birth to age 2. Children experience the world through movement and senses (use five senses to explore the world). During the sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot perceive the world from others' viewpoints. , divided into six substages
Preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7 (Acquisition of motor skills). Egocentrism begins strongly and then weakens. Children cannot conserve or use logical thinking.
Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 12 (children begin to think logically but are very concrete in their thinking). Children can now conserve and think logically but only with practical aids. They are no longer egocentric.
Formal operational stage from age 12 onwards (development of abstract reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think logically in their mind.

23. A constructivist model of learning
Assumes that the learner him/herself construes his/her learning structures .
These structures exist in the brain as dispositions described by a psychological metaphor as mental schemes.(Piaget)
The concept of scheme is used to classify what we subjectively connect and recall in relation to a particular topic.
Mental patterns is similarly used as a concept in relation to incentive and interaction dimensions.
It is no archive, but traces of circuits between billions of neurons that have been active earlier. In brain research called engrams.
The triangle model is basically constructivist in nature, i.e. it is assumed that the learner him/herself actively builds up or constructs his/her learning as mental structures. The structures exist in the brain as dispositions that are mental structures. These structures exist in the brain as dispositions that are usually described by a psychological metaphore of mental schemes. This means that there must in the brian be some organisation of learning outcomes that we when becoming aware of something – a perrson a problem a topic etc in fractions of a second are able to recall what we subjectively and usually unconsciously define as relevant knowledge, understanding attitudes reactions and the like. But this organisation is in no way a kind of archive, and it is not possible to find the diferent elements in specific positions of the brain. It has the nature of what brain researcherrs call engrams which are traces of circuits between some of the billions of neurons that have been active at earlier occasions and therefore are likely to be revived, perhaps with slightly different courses because of the impact of new experiences of understanding.
However in order to deal systematically with this the concept of schemes is used for what we subjectively tend to classify as belonging to a specific topic or theme and therefore mentally connect and are inclined to recall in relation to situations that we relate to that topic or theme. This especially applies to the content dimension whereas in the incentive and interaction dimension we would rather speak of mental patterns. But the background is similar in that motivations, emotions or ways of communication tend to be organised so that they can be revived when we are oriented towards situations that remind us of earlier situations when we have been active.In relation to learning the crucial thing is that the new impulses can be included in the mental organisation in verious ways and on this basis it is possible to distinguish between four different types of learning which are activated in different contexts, imply different learning results and require more or less energy(Piaget 1952)

24. Four types of learning
Cumulative( or mechanical) learning.( isolated formation – not part of anything else – no personal meaning).When a scheme is established. Most important in early childhood.
Assimilative learning.Most common type of learning. Learning by addition. New element is linked to a scheme that is already established.
Accomodative (or transcendent) learning. Breaks down and transforms (parts of) an existing scheme.(difficult process)
Expansive (transformative, significant) learning.
personality changes, characterised by a restructuring of a cluster of schemes and patternes ( crisis like situation)
When a scheme or pattern is established it is a case of cumulative learning. This type of learning is characterised by being an isolated formation, something new that is not part of anything else. Therefore cumulative learning is most frequent during the first years of life, but later occurs in special situations where one must learn something with no context of meaning og perrsonal significance , for example a pin code. The learning is characterized by a type of automation. It is mainly this type of learning which is involved in the training of animals and is referred to as conditioning in behaviorist psychology.
By far the most common type of learning is termed assimilative learning or learning by addition. Typical example is learning in school subjects that are usually built up by means of constant additions to what has already been learned, but assimilative learning also takes place in all contexts where one gradually develops one´s capacities. The results of learning are characterized by being linked to the scheme or pattern in question in such a manner that it is realatively easy to recall and apply them when one is mentally oriented towards the field in question, for example a school subject , while they may be hard to access in other contexts (tranfer problem). This is why problems are frequently experienced in applying knowledge from a school subject to other subjects or in contexts outside of school.
In some situations something takes place which is difficult to immediately relate to any existing scheme or pattern. This is experienced as something one cannot really underrstand or relate to. But if it seems important or interesting, if it is something one is determined to acquire, this takes place by means of accomodative learning.This type of learning implies that one breaks down (parts of) an existing scheme and transforms it so that a new situation can be linked in. Thus one both relinquishes and reconstructs something and this can be experienced as demanding or even painful, because it is something that requires a strong supply of mental energy. One must cross existing limitations and underrstand or accept something that is significantly new or different and this is much more demanding than just adding a new element to an already existing scheme or pattern. In return the results of such learning are characterised by the fact that they can be recalled and applied in may different, relevant contexts. It is typically experienced as having underrstood or got hold of something which one really has internalised.
Finally over the last decades it has been pointed out that in special situations there is also a far-reaching type of learning that has been variously described as significant (Rogers 1951, 1969), expansive (Engeström 1987), transitional (Alheit( 1994) or transformative learning(Mezirow 1991). This learning implies what could be termed perrsonality changes or changes in the organisation of the self, and is characterized by a simultaneous restructuring of a whole cluster of schemes that typically occurs as the result of crisis-like situations caused by challenges experienced as urgent and unavoidable. It demands a lot of mental energy.
The forur types of learning are widely different in scope and nature and they also occur or are activated by learners in widely different situations and connections. Whereas cumulativev learning is more important in early childhood, the tranformative learning occurs in some adults and is a very demanding process that changes the perrsonality and identity and occurs only in very special situations of profound significance. Thus the two are the outer poles of learning. Assimilation and accomodation are as described by Piaget the two types of learning that characterise general and everyday learning. Lev Vygotsky´s(1978) transition into the zones of proximal devevlopment may be seen in parallel to accomodative learning. However, many discussions of learning i schools are concentrated only on assimilative learning which is the concept of learning that the usual understanding refers to. This underrstanding is quite insufficient today and as we shall see the latest devevlopment of cultural historical learning theories try to overcome this limitation by pointing to new combinations of assimilative, accomodative and eventually transformativev learning processes which reaches out beyond the early individualistic theories.

25. From individual constructivism to social constructivism
Piaget's theory, however vital in understanding child psychology, did not go without scrutiny. A main figure whose ideas contradicted Piaget's ideas was the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky stressed the importance of a child's cultural background as an effect to the stages of development. Because different cultures stress different social interactions, this challenged Piaget's theory that the hierarchy of learning development had to develop in succession. Vygotsky introduced the term Zone of proximal development as an overall task a child would have to develop that would be too difficult to develop alone.

26. Vygotsky
Vygotsky was a student of literature, philosophy and estetics(humanities & social sciences) who plunged into pscychology.
Born into Jewish family in Russia. Vygotsky was especially interested in the philosophy of history. He also looked for an alternative to Cartesian dualism.
He got a position at a local teachers college and becase interested in the physically handicapped before he moved to Moscow and got a ph.d. at the Moscow Institute of Psychology.

27. Vygotsky
Vygotsky´s thesis was on the psychology of art The title reveals that to Vygotsky psychology was a method of uncovering the origins of higher forms of human consciousness and emotional life rather than elementary behavioral acts.
1924 Vygotsky delivered a vehement attack on the reflexologists.: Scientific ppsychology cannot ignore the facts of consciousness thus challenging Pavlovians
This preoccupation with human functions in opposition to merely natural and biological ones was to become a trademark of Vygotsky´s lifework. Pschychology was for him a conceptual tool not the end.

28. Vygotsky´s programme
Be developmental. Vygotsky perceived development as a dynamic process.
Solve the problem of interrelation between higher mental functions and lower elementary functions
Take socially meaningful activity as an explanatory principle.
Language and speech occupy a special place.(thought and speech have different roots)
Wanted to find a ”third way” between scientific and philosophical psychology.

29. Scientific and spontaneous concepts.
Scientific concepts originate in the highly structured and specialized activity of classroom instruction and impose on the chile logically defined concepts.
Spontaneous concepts emerge from the child´s own reflections on everyday experience.
Scientific concepts are not assimilated but undergo substantial development depending on the existing level of a child´s ability to comprehend concepts. This level of comprehension is connected with the development of spontaneous concepts.
Spontaneous concepts in working their way upwards toward greater abstractness clear a path for scientific concepts on the downward development toward greater concreteness.

30. Major points in learning from Social constructivism & Vygotsky
Emphasis is on interaction between the learner and others.
Language has a high priority
Dialogue with peers or more knowledgeable others
The Zone of proximal development
Recent educational tool: Collaborative learning
The zone of proximal development is a theoretical space of underrstanding which is just above the level of understanding of a given individual. It is the area of understanding of a given individual . It is the area of understanding into which the learner will move next.

31. Social and Individual Constructivism Vygotsky vs Piaget (Pritchard 2009)
Both were constructivists. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that individuals actively construct their own knowledge and underrstanding.
Vygotsky stressed the importance of the social interaction in which an individual participates. Piaget stressed the inner motivation to balance new information with existing knowledge and understanding.

32. Social and Individual Constructivism
Vygotsky
Piaget
Social constructivism
Children learn through being active
Learning is a socially mediated activity
Emphasis on the role of the teacher or more knowledgeable other as a scaffolder
Cognitive constructivism
Children learn through being active
Children operate as ”lone scientists”
If a child is shown how to do something rather than being encouraged to discover for himself, understanding might be inhibited

33. Social and Individual Constructivism
Vygotsky
Piaget
The teacher is a mentor who provides the challenges that the child needs for achieving more
Development is fostered by collaboration ( in the zone of proximal development and not strictly age related.
The teacher is the provider of artefacts needed for the child to work with and learn from
Cognitive growth has a biological, age related developmental basis

34. Social and Individual Constructivism
Vygotsky
Piaget
Development is an internalisation of social experience. Children can be taught concepts that are just beyond their level of development with appropriate support.
What the child can do with an adult today, they can do alone tomorrow.
Children are unable to extend their cognitive capabilities beyond their stage of development.
There is no point in teaching a concept beyond current stages of development.

35. Constructivism – epistemology or learning theory ?
Research support for constructivist teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other research contradicting those results.
( Tobias, S., Duffy, T.M.(eds)(2009): Constructivist Instruction. Success or Failure? New York: Routledge)

36. Epistemology and Teaching
So even though constructivism is accepted at the epistemological level it is hotly debated to what extent learning and teaching can be based on that notion.

37. Constructivism vs.Direct instruction
Students who had practice with feedback had better performance and more positive attitudes than those students who did not have opportunities for practice.
Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark suggest that novices be taught with direct methods of instruction like worked examples. Sweller (2006) discusses the worked-example effect as a alternative to problem-solving for novices. However practice with feedback is condoned and even encouraged by Sweller and his associated because these types of learning are important for those who already acquired a schema (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003) therefore there is no conflict between Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark's views, and those of Klein and Sullivan. Each agrees that the learner be given practice with feedback. Kirschner et al. (2006) propose instruction should, however, begin with worked examples.
Studying examples as an alternative to active learning strategies
Self-guided instruction is possible, but Sweller and Cooper argue that it is often arduous, clumsy, and less than efficient (Sweller and Cooper, 1985). Sweller (1988) suggests learners should first study worked examples because this is a more efficient method of initial instruction. Sweller and Cooper found that learners who studied worked examples performed significantly better than learners who actively solved problems (Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Cooper & Sweller, 1987). This was later called the “worked-example effect. " (Clark, Nguyen and Sweller, 2006).
Evidence for learning by studying worked examples (the worked-example effect) has been found to be useful in many domains [e.g. music, chess, athletics (Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000); concept mapping (Hilbert & Renkl, 2007); geometry (Tarmizi and Sweller, 1988); physics, mathematics, or programming (Gerjets, Scheiter, and Catrambone, 2004)]. Finally the worked example effect is only useful for novices (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler, and
One 2007 study compared results for college students in six different versions of a computer literacy course. In some groups, instructional elements were left out (objectives, information, examples, practice with feedback, review). The "practice with feedback" is the active learning component of the study. The researchers found that in all cases,
Sweller, 2003), so again practice is a necessity, but only later after a student has the underlying schema in place.

38. Science and Politics -Evidence
In the past few years outcome-based education/performance-based education policy has begun to limit instructors to only using those techniques that have been shown to be effective. In the United States for instance, the No Child Left Behind requires those developing instruction to show evidence of its "effectiveness."