1. The whole of human history is built upon communication. From the first story told in prehistoric times through the mass media of today, verbal communication has built the foundation of who we are, where we came from, and what we hope to become.

2. Throughout time, many orators, philosophers, and educators have tried to capture the essence of human communication. Although a true understanding of the complexity of communication takes years of examination, here are a few theories.

3. Long before humankind even conceived of written language, history and tradition were kept through storytelling. Many of the oldest stories and religious traditions of today were retold as stories countless times before they were ever written down.

4. With no script or written word to follow, storytellers weaved detailed anecdotes about the world around them entirely from memory. These tales explained the mysteries of the world, recounted the heroes of the past, and informed early tribal members of the daily happenings around them.

5. For thousands of years, storytellers were the keepers of the history of humankind. They held a highly respected role in the community. In addition to keeping the culture, storytellers acted as educators, newscasters, and entertainers.

6. Even after written language developed, many societies rejected writing for religious or cultural reasons. It is believed that the early Israelites may have thought that the Second Commandment (Thou shalt have no graven images before Me) forbade them from using the written word. This sentiment has been shared by many throughout history (including an early American sect known as the Dunkers).

7. Unfortunately, the lack of written records has left many questions about who these people were and what they believed.. But at least their complex oral traditions have left us a verbal image of times that may have otherwise been forgotten

8. Over 2300 years ago, Aristotle laid the groundwork for modern public communication. His teacher, Plato, hated the way that public speakers skillfully manipulated audiences with no apparent regard for truth. Plato saw little value for the mere rhetoric used by the fast-talking speakers of his day.

9. Aristotle, however, saw great potential in rhetoric (one person addressing many). He believed it was an art that could and should be studied and that good rhetoric was not only persuasive, but also ethical. He stated that all public presentations are some balance of three rhetorical proofs: ethos (ethical), pathos (emotional), and logos (logical).

10. The ethos is the speaker and his or her character as revealed through the communication. The pathos is the audience and the emotions felt by them during the rhetoric. The logos is the actual words used by the speaker.

11. Although no presenter today would speak without considering the audience, Aristotle's pathos was a novel idea in his time. He is the earliest record of a rhetorician identifying the audience and their perception as an important part of public speaking. In fact, he believed that a speech was effective only if it stirred up emotions in its audience.

12. Although Kenneth Burke never received a college degree, his Dramatism Theory has become an important addition to mainstream communication theory. Burke believed that all of life and all communication is a drama. His primary concern is with a speaker's ability to identify with an audience.

13. Burke's pentad identifies five crucial elements of our human drama (communications). The act is what has been done by the communicator. The scene gives the context or background surrounding the act. The agent is the person who performed the act. The agency is the means that was used to "get the job done". The purpose is the stated or implied goal of the address.

14. If there is a perceived similarity between the speaker and the listener, the audience is more likely to believe that the speaker was "talking sense". This is the key to persuasive speaking, according to Burke

15. Although most communicators will argue that narratives are only one part of communication, Walter Fisher believes that all communication is a form of storytelling. His Narrative Paradigm asserts that people are essentially storytelling animals and our reason is best appealed to through stories..

16. Fisher defines narration as symbolic actions, words, and/or deeds that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create or interpret them. Obviously, his broad definition that everything with sequence and meaning is a narrative leaves little room to argue with his claim that all meaningful communication is storytelling

17. Fisher says that not all stories are created equally. He thinks that everyone has the same innate ability to determine the narrative rationality (interpreted value) of the stories we hear based upon two aspects. First we examine the narrative coherence. This is our way of determining if the story holds together and makes sense in our world.

18. Then we check the narrative fidelity. Here we see if the story matches our own beliefs and experiences and, hence, portrays the world we live in.

19.  People are essentially rational  We make decisions on the basis of arguments  The type of speaking situation determines the course of our argument  Rationality is determined by how much we know and how well we argue  The world is a set of logical puzzles that we can solve through rational analysis

20.  People are essentially storytellers  We make decisions on the basis of good reasons  History, biography, culture, and character determine what we consider good reasons  Narrative rationality is determined by the coherence and fidelity of our stories  The world is a set of stories from which we choose, and thus constantly re-create, our lives

21. Claude Shannon was a research scientist at Bell Telephone Company trying to achieve maximum telephone line capacity with minimum distortion. He had never intended for his mathematical theory of signal transmission for anything but telephones. But when Warren Weaver applied Shannon's concept of information loss to interpersonal communication, one of the most popular models of communication was created.

22. Information Source ========> Message Sent Transmitter ========> Signal Sent Sources of Noise ========> Signal Received Receiver ========> Message Received Destination

23. According to Shannon and Weaver's model a message begins at an information source, which is relayed through a transmitter, and then sent via a signal towards the receiver. But before it reaches the receiver, the message must go through noise (sources of interference). Finally, the receiver must convey the message to its destination.

24. Suppose you have an idea in your head (information source) that you want to tell someone about. You must first move the idea from your brain to your mouth (transmitter). Since you cannot actually share your gray matter, you must select words for your transmitter to use.

25. Once you speak, your voice (signal) is carried through the air toward the listener's ear (receiver). Along the way, your signal is joined by a myriad of other sounds and distractions (noises). The receiver then takes everything it receives and tries to maximum the message and minimize the noise. Finally, the receiver conveys its message to the other person's mind (destination).

26. Shannon and Weaver's model clearly demonstrates why even the simplest communications can be misunderstood. Transmitting a signal across additional media only adds to the complexity of the communication and increases the chance for distortion. It is suddenly easier to understand why other people just can't grasp what we already know.