1. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Organizational Behavior: Motivation Essence of Life

2. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Motivation Defined Implications Associated with This Definition Behavior is purposive rather than random - People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late for work) behavior for a reason Motivation arouses people to do something - People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task Motivation: Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousal direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.

3. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Types of Motives 1- Primary Motives Physiological, Unlearned 2- General Motives Not Physiological, Unlearned 3- Secondary Motives Learned, Psychological

4. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Content vs. Process Motivation Theories Content theories explain why people have different needs at different times. Implications of Content Theories: 1.Match rewards with employee needs 2.Offer employees a choice of rewards 3.people have different needs at different times 4.Limit use of financial rewards as a source of motivation Process theories describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior

5. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. The Motivation Process UnsatisfiedNeedTension SearchBehaviorDrives SatisfiedNeedReduction of Tension

6. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs Self-actualizationEsteemSocialSafetyPhysiological

7. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Needs Hierarchy Theory Self- Actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological Maslow arranged five needs in a hierarchy Satisfaction-progression process People who experience self- actualization desire more rather than less of this need

8. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. ERG Theory Needs Hierarchy Theory ERG Theory Self- Actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological Growth Relatedness Existence Alderfer’s model has three sets of needs Adds frustration- regression process to Maslow’s model

9. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Content Theories of Motivation Self- Actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological Growth Relatedness Existence Motivator--Hygiene Theory Motivators Hygienes Need for Achievement Need for Power Affiliation McClelland’s Learned Needs ERG Theory Needs Hierarchy Theory

10. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors Quality of supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security Quality of supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility Achievement Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility Achievement High Job Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction 0

11. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Model No SatisfactionSatisfaction Jobs that do notJobs offering offer achievementachievement, recognition,recognition, stimulating work,stimulating work, responsibility,responsibility, and advancement.and advancement. Motivators Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction Jobs with poor Jobs with good company policies, company policies, and administration, and administration, technical supervision technical supervision, salary, interpersonal salary, interpersonal relationships with relationships with supervisors, and supervisors, and working conditions. working conditions. Hygiene Factors

12. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. David C. McClelland and Achievement Needs Characteristics of High Achievers 1.Moderate Risk Taking 2.Need for Immediate Feedback 3.Satisfaction with Accomplishments 4.Preoccupation with the Task 1.Moderate Risk Taking 2.Need for Immediate Feedback 3.Satisfaction with Accomplishments 4.Preoccupation with the Task

13. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Theory X Workers Dislike Work Avoid Responsibility Little Ambition Theory Y Workers Enjoy Work Accept Responsibility Self-Directed

14. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Specific Goals Goal-SettingTheoryGoal-SettingTheory ChallengingGoalsChallengingGoals Goals and Participation Participation

15. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Specific Relevant Challenging TaskEffortTaskPerformance Effective Goal Setting Challenging Participation Commitment

16. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Reinforcement Theory Consequences Rewards No Rewards Punishment Behavior

17. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Perceived Ratio Comparison a Employee’s Assessment Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes B Inputs B Outcomes B Inputs B Outcomes B Inputs B < = > Inequity (Under-Rewarded) Equity Inequity (Over-Rewarded) a Person A is the employee, and person B is a relevant other or referent. Equity Theory

18. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Elements of Equity Theory Outcome/input ratio –inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill) –outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay) Comparison other –person/people we compare ratio with –not easily identifiable Equity evaluation –compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other

19. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Negative and Positive Inequity A. An Equitable Situation Self Other $2 1 hour = $2 per hour $4 2 hours = $2 per hour

20. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Negative and Positive Inequity (cont) $2 1 hour = $2 per hour $3 1 hour = $3 per hour B. Negative Inequity Self Other

21. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Negative and Positive Inequity (cont) $2 1 hours = $1 per hour C. Positive Inequity $3 1 hour = $3 per hour Self Other

22. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Consequences of Inequity 1.Change inputs 2.Change outcomes 3.Change perceptions 4.Leave the field 5.Act on the comparison other 6.Change the comparison other Equity Sensitivity Benevolents –Tolerant of being underrewarded Equity Sensitives –Want ratio to be equal to the comparison other Entitleds –Prefer receiving proportionately more than others

23. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Organizational Justice Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed. Procedural Justice: The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. Interactional Justice: The perceived fairness of the decision maker’s behavior in the process of decision making.

24. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. E-to-P Expectancy P-to-O Expectancy Outcomes & Valences IndividualEffortIndividualPerformance Expectancy Theory of Motivation 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship 1. Effort-performance relationship 2. Performance-rewards relationship PersonalGoals OrganizationalRewards 1 2 Outcome 1 + or - Outcome 3 + or - Outcome 2 + or - 3

25. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Concepts Expectancy: Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a specific level of performance Instrumentality: Instrumentality: A performance  outcome perception. Valence: Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

26. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory Determine the outcomes.Determine the outcomes. Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded.Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded. Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels.Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance.Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort.Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.Monitor the reward system for inequities. Expectancy Theory in Practice: Increasing the E-to-P expectancy –training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback Increasing the P-to-O expectancy –Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance Increasing outcome valences –Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes

27. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret.Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. Design challenging jobs.Design challenging jobs. Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation.Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment.Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires.Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.

28. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Goals Goal: Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish. Encouraging the development of goal- attainment strategies or action plans Increasing one’s persistence Regulating one’s effort Directing one’s attention Goals motivate the individual by... Task performance

29. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Insights from Goal-Setting Research Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance. Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance. - Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to achieve. - Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance because people begin to experience failure. Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks. Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks. - Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. - Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for solving these types of problems. Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. - Goals and feedback should be used together. Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective. Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective. - Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach. Different methods work in different situations. Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes. Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes. - Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to their goals. - Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are not committed to their goals. - Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation. * Employees may not help each other. * Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity goals. * Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.

30. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Guidelines for Writing “SMART” Goals S S pecific M M easurable A A ttainable R R esults oriented T T ime bound

31. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Area of Optimal Goal Difficulty High Task Performance LowModerateChallengingImpossible Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance Goal Difficulty

32. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Approaches to Job Design 2. Motivational Approaches 2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve employees’ affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes. 3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches 3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches Biological techniques focus on reducing employees’ physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers’ feedback about facilities and equipment. 1. The Mechanistic Approach 1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly.

33. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. The Job Characteristics Model Outcomes *High internal work motivation *High growth satisfaction *High general job satisfaction *High work effectiveness Critical psychological states *Experienced meaningfulness of the work *Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work *Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities Core job characteristics *Skill variety *Task identity *Task significance *Autonomy *Feedback from job Moderators 1. Knowledge and skill 2. Growth need strength 3. Context satisfactions

34. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Skills and Best Practices: Applying the Job Characteristics Model 1.Diagnose the level of employee motivation and job. satisfaction and consider redesigning jobs when motivation ranges from low to moderate. 2.Determine whether job redesign is appropriate in a given context. 3.Redesign jobs by including employees’ input.

35. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. How Satisfied are You with Your Job? What is your level of job satisfaction with recognition, compensation, and supervision? Is satisfaction across various aspects of your job equally important? Explain. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is an effective or emotional response toward various facets of one’s job.

36. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Causes of Job Satisfaction Need Fulfillment:Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to which a job satisfies a person’s needs. Discrepancies:Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to which an individual receives what he or she expects from a job. Value Attainment:Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to which a job allows fulfillment of one’s work values. Equity:Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how “fairly” an individual is treated at work. Trait/Genetic Components:Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a function of personal traits and genetic factors.

37. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Correlates of Job Satisfaction Variables Related Direction of Strength of with Satisfaction Relationship Relationship Motivation Positive Moderate Job Involvement Positive Moderate Organizational Citizenship behavior Positive Moderate Organizational Commitment Positive Strong Absenteeism Negative Weak Tardiness Negative Weak Turnover Negative Moderate Heart Disease Negative Moderate Perceived Stress Negative Strong Pro-Union Voting Negative Moderate Job Performance Positive Weak Life Satisfaction Positive Moderate Mental Health Positive Moderate

38. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. OrganizationalObjectives DivisionalObjectives DepartmentalObjectives IndividualObjectives What Is Management by Objectives?

39. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Key Elements of MBO GoalSpecificity Explicit Time Period Participation in Decision Making PerformanceFeedback

40. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Linking MBO and Goal-Setting Theory Participation in Goal Setting Specificity of Goals Feedback on Performance Difficulty of Goals

41. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Employee Recognition Programs Recognition and ReinforcementDefiningRecognition Recognition Plans in Practice

42. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Employee Involvement Programs ParticipativeManagementRepresentativeParticipation Employee Stock Ownership QualityCircles

43. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. PieceRate Variable Pay PlansProfitSharing GainsharingBonusPlans

44. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Skill-Based Pay Plans Promotes Flexibility Promotes Flexibility Facilitates Communication Facilitates Communication Satisfies Ambitious Workers Satisfies Ambitious Workers “Topping Out” “Topping Out” Obsolescence of Skills Obsolescence of Skills Performance versus Skills Performance versus Skills Advantages Disadvantages

45. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Hierarchy of Needs Skill-Based Plans and Motivation Theories Need for Achievement Equity Theory ReinforcementTheory

46. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Money and employee needs –affects several needs, not just existence needs Money and attitudes –Money ethic -- not evil, represents success, should be budgeted carefully Money and self-identity –Influences our self-perceptions –Evidence that men more than women identify with money The Meaning of Money.

47. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Membership and seniority Job status Competencies Performance Types of Rewards in the Workplace.

48. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Membership/Seniority Based Rewards Fixed wages, seniority increases Advantages –guaranteed wages may attract job applicants –seniority-based rewards reduce turnover Disadvantages –doesn’t motivate job performance –discourages poor performers from leaving –may act as golden handcuffs

49. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Job Status-Based Rewards Includes job evaluation and status perks Advantages: –job evaluation tries to maintain pay equity –motivates competition for promotions Disadvantages: –employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources –creates psychological distance across hierarchy –Inconsistent with flatter organizations

50. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Competency-Based Rewards Pay increases with competencies acquired or demonstrated Skill-based pay –Pay increases with skill modules learned Advantages –More flexible work force, better quality, consistent with employability Disadvantages –Potentially subjective, higher training costs

51. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Organizationalrewards Stock ownershipStock ownership Stock optionsStock options Profit sharingProfit sharing Teamrewards GainsharingGainsharing BonusesBonuses Performance-Based Rewards Individualrewards Piece ratePiece rate CommissionsCommissions RoyaltiesRoyalties Merit payMerit pay

52. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Problems with Performance Rewards Shift attention away from motivation job itself to extrinsic rewards Create a psychological distance with reward giver Discourage risk taking Used as quick fixes

53. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Improving Reward Effectiveness Link rewards to performance Ensure rewards are relevant Team rewards for interdependent jobs Ensure rewards are valued Beware of unintended consequences.

54. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Job Design Assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs Technology influences, but does not determine, job design Employability affects job design.

55. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. AdvantagesDisadvantages Evaluating Job Specialization Less time changing tasks Lower training costs Job mastered quickly Better person-job matching Job boredom Discontentment pay Lower quality Lower motivation

56. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. WorkmotivationGrowthsatisfactionGeneralsatisfactionWorkeffectiveness Job Characteristics Model Feedback from job Knowledge of results Skill variety Task identity Task significance Meaningfulness AutonomyResponsibility Individualdifferences CriticalPsychologicalStates Core Job CharacteristicsOutcomes

57. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Job Enlargement Job Rotation Job 1 Operate Camera Job 2 Operate Sound Job 3 Report Story Job 1 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job 2 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job 3 Operate Camera Operate Sound Report Story Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement

58. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Job Enrichment Strategies Empowering employees –giving employees more autonomy –feeling of control and self-efficacy Forming natural work units –completing an entire task –assigning employees to specific clients Establishing client relationships –employees put in direct contact with clients

59. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. Obstacles to Job Design Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics Resistance to change –skilled workers –labor union leaders –supervisors Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and specialization

60. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. A Job Performance Model of Motivation Ability, Job knowledge Dispositions & Traits Emotions, Moods, &Affect Beliefs & Values Individual Inputs Physical Environment Task Design Rewards & Reinforcement Supervisory Support & Coaching Social Norms Organizational Culture Job Context Arousal Attention Intensity & & Direction Persistence Motivational Processes Motivated Behaviors Skills Enable, Limit

61. Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran. A Job Performance Model of Motivation (cont.) Individual Inputs Job Context Motivational Processes Focus: Direction, What we do Intensity: Effort, how hard we try Quality: Task strategies, the way we do it Duration: Persistence, how long we stick to it Skills Enable, Limit Performance Motivated Behaviors