1. PSYCHOLOGY OF ADJUSTMENT
HBD4725 / HBD5725
Spring 2012
Candace Genest, Ph.D.
Chapters 7 & 8

2. Learning Objectives
Contrasting constructive and destructive fight styles. (Chapter 7)
Comparing and contrasting male versus female role expectations and communication styles. (Chapters 8 & 11)

3. Social Thinking and Social Influence
Chapter 7
Social Thinking and Social Influence

4. Forming Impressions of Others
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Cite the five sources of information people use to form impressions of others.
Understand the key differences between snap judgments and systematic judgments.
Define attributions and explain when people are likely to make them.

5. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued
Describe two expectancies that can distort observers’ perceptions.
Recognize four important cognitive distortions and how they operate.
Identify some ways in which perceptions of others are efficient, selective, and consistent.

6. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
As we engage in person perception, “the process of forming impressions of others”, we rely on five key sources of information:
Appearance.
Verbal behavior.
Actions.
Nonverbal messages (e.g., facial expressions, body language, and gestures).
Situations.

7. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Snap judgments vs. systematic judgments
Snap judgments about others “are those made quickly and based on only a few bits of information and preconceived notions”.
They are “shortcuts” that rely on automatic processing, and are used when we are not motivated to form an accurate impression of another person.

8. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Snap vs. systematic judgments, continued
Systematic judgments require more controlled processing and tend to occur when forming impressions of others that can affect our happiness or welfare.

9. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Attributions are “inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior, others’ behavior, and events”. There are two types:
Internal attributions – when people attribute the cause of others’ behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, or feelings.
External attributions – when people attribute the cause of others’ behavior to situational demands or environmental constraints.

10. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Attributions, continued
We are most likely to make attributions about others’ behavior when
Others behave in unexpected or negative ways.
When events are personally relevant.
When we are suspicious about others’ motives.

11. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Perceiver expectations
How we expect others to behave can influence our actual perceptions of them.
Confirmation bias – “seeking information that supports one’s beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information”.
Self-fulfilling prophecies – occur when “expectations about a person cause the person to behave in ways that confirm the expectations” (see Figure 7.3).

12. INSERT FIG 7.3
Figure The three steps of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Through a three-step process, your expectations about a person can cause that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations. First, you form an impression of someone. Second, you behave toward that person in a way that is consistent with your impression. Third, the person exhibits the behavior you encourage, which confirms your initial impression.
Adapted from Smith, E.R., & Mackie, D.M. (1995). Social Psychology. New York: Worth, p Copyright © 1995 Worth Publishing. Reprinted with permission.

13. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Cognitive distortions
Social categorizations – cognitive “shortcuts” in which we categorize people on the basis of nationality, race, gender, etc.
People perceive similar individuals to be members of their ingroup (us) and dissimilar people to be members of the outgroup (them).

14. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Social categorization, continued
Categorizing has three important results:
People have more negative attitudes toward outgroup members.
People see outgroup members as more alike than they really are (the outgroup homogeneity effect).
The visibility of outgroup members is heightened when they comprise the minority in a crowd.

15. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Stereotypes – “widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group”.
Stereotypes persist because of
Simplicity. They are less effortful, cognitively. But, the trade-off for simplicity is inaccuracy.
Confirmation bias.
Self-fulfilling prophecy.

16. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
The fundamental attribution error – refers to “the tendency to explain other people’s behavior as the result of personal, rather than situational, factors”.
Making attributions requires two steps:
Focusing on the person (making an internal attribution).
Taking the situation into account (allowing for external attributions).
The second step is more effortful, so we often skip it (see Figure 7.5).

17. Figure 7. 5. Explaining the fundamental attribution error
Figure Explaining the fundamental attribution error. People automatically take the first step in the attribution process (making a personal attribution). However, they often fail to take the second step (considering the possible influence of situational factors on a person’s behavior) because that requires extra effort. The failure to consider situational factors causes observers to exaggerate the role of personal factors in behavior—that is, they make the fundamental attribution error. (Adapted from Brehm, Kassin, & Fein, 2002)

18. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
A defensive attribution is “the tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way”.

19. Forming Impressions of Others, continued
Key themes in person perception:
Efficiency – when forming impressions of others, we default to automatic processing.
Selectivity – we “see what we expect to see” by focusing on aspects of the person that confirm our expectations (see Figure 7.6).
Consistency – First impressions do matter! Once a perceiver has formed an impression of someone, he or she tunes out subsequent information. This is called the primacy effect.

20. Figure Descriptions of the guest lecturer in Kelley’s (1950) study. These two descriptions, provided to two groups of students before the lecturer spoke, differ by only an adjective. But this seemingly small difference caused the two groups to form altogether different perceptions of the lecturer.

21. The Problem of Prejudice
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain how “old-fashioned” and modern discrimination differ.
Understand how authoritarianism and cognitive distortions can contribute to prejudice.
Clarify how intergroup competition and threats to social identity can foster prejudice.
Describe the operation of several strategies for reducing prejudice.
The material in this section (slides 20-28) relates to two different areas of the APA Goals:
APA Goal 5: Values in Psychology, especially subgoal 5.5: Recognize and respect human diversity.
APA Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness, especially subgoal 8.5: Recognize prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors that might exist in themselves and others.

22. The Problem of Prejudice, continued
Prejudice – “a negative attitude toward members of a group”.
Discrimination – “involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group”.
Prejudice and discrimination often go together, but this is not always the case (see Figure 7.7).
Sometimes, we are not even aware of our prejudices as demonstrated by the Implicit Association Test.

23. Figure 7. 7. Prejudice and discrimination
Figure Prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice and discrimination are highly correlated, but they don’t necessarily go hand in hand. As the examples in the blue cells show, there can be prejudice without discrimination and discrimination without prejudice.

24. The Problem of Prejudice, continued
“Old-fashioned” vs. modern discrimination
“Old-fashioned”, or overt, discrimination has declined in recent years, but a more subtle (“modern”) form of discrimination has emerged.
Modern discrimination occurs when “people privately harbor negative attitudes toward minority groups, but express them only when they feel such views are justified, or that it’s safe to do so” (see Figure 7.8).

25. INSERT FIG 7.8
Figure Measuring old-fashioned and modern sexism. Research shows similarities between old-fashioned and modern beliefs about both racism and sexism. Janet Swim and colleagues (1995) have developed a scale to measure the presence of both types of sexism. Four items from the 13-item scale are shown here. Old-fashioned sexism is characterized by endorsement of traditional gender roles and acceptance of stereotypes that portray females as less competent than males. In contrast, subtle, modern sexism is characterized by denial of continued discrimination and rejection of policies intended to help women.
From Swim, J.K., Aikin, K.J., Hall, W.S., & Hunter, B.A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, Copyright © 1995 American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission of the author.

26. The Problem of Prejudice, continued
Causes of prejudice
The authoritarian personality, a “personality type characterized by prejudice toward any group perceived to be different from oneself”.
Cognitive distortions and expectations such as stereotyping, fundamental attribution error, defensive attributions, and expectations.

27. The Problem of Prejudice, continued
Causes of prejudice, continued
Competition between groups – perceived threats to one’s group, such as conflict over scarce resources, causes prejudice against outgroup members.
Threats to social identity – when the collective self-esteem of a group is threatened, two response may occur:
Ingroup favoritism.
Outgroup denigration.

28. The Problem of Prejudice, continued
Reducing prejudice
Cognitive strategies – make an effort to override stereotypes by using controlled processing.
Intergroup contact
Superordinate goals – “goals that require two or more groups to work together to achieve mutual ends” can reduce intergroup hostility.

29. The Power of Persuasion
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Cite the key elements in the persuasion process.
Describe several source factors that influence persuasion.
Discuss the evidence on one-sided versus two-sided messages and the value of arousing fear or positive feelings in persuasion.

30. The Power of Persuasion, continued
LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued
Identify several receiver factors that influence persuasion.
Explain how the two cognitive routes to persuasion operate.

31. The Power of Persuasion, continued
Persuasion – “involves the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person’s attitudes”.
Attitudes – include “beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas”.

32. The Power of Persuasion, continued
The elements of the persuasion process (see Figure 7.12).
The source is “the person who sends a communication”.
The receiver is “the person to whom the message is sent”.
The message is “the information transmitted by the source”.
The channel is “the medium through which the message is sent”.

33. Figure 7. 12. Overview of the persuasion process
Figure Overview of the persuasion process. The process of persuasion essentially boils down to who (the source) communicates what (the message) by what means (the channel) to whom (the receiver). Thus, four sets of variables influence the process of persuasion: source, message, channel, and receiver factors. The diagram lists some of the more important factors in each category (including some that are not discussed in the text due to space limitations).

34. The Power of Persuasion, continued
Source factors
Persuasion is more effective when
The source has high credibility. Sources are deemed credible if they have expertise and are trustworthy.
The source is likable. Likability is increased when the source is attractive and/or similar to the receiver.

35. The Power of Persuasion, continued
Message factors
Messages are most effective when
Two-sided arguments are used. This also increases credibility.
Persuaders use emotional appeals to shift attitudes.
They create positive feelings in the receiver.

36. The Power of Persuasion, continued
Receiver factors
Mood (optimistic vs. pessimistic)
The receiver’s need for cognition, or “tendency to seek out and enjoy effortful thought, problem solving activities, and in-depth analysis”.
Forewarning, which reduces the impact of arguments on receivers.
Receivers are harder to persuade when the message content is incompatible with existing beliefs.

37. The Power of Persuasion, continued
The whys of persuasion
According to the elaboration likelihood model, our thoughts about a persuasive message are most important in determining whether attitudes will change.
Messages can be perceived either through a peripheral route (not mindful processing) or central route (mindful processing). (See Figure 7.13.)

38. Figure 7. 13. The peripheral and central routes to persuasion
Figure The peripheral and central routes to persuasion. Persuasion can occur via two different routes. The central route, which results in high elaboration, tends to produce longer-lasting attitude change and stronger attitudes.

39. The Power of Persuasion, continued
Peripheral versus central routes, continued
Messages perceived through central routes are usually more effective, longer-lasting, and a better predictor of behavior.
For the central route to override the peripheral route,
The receiver must be motivated to process the persuasive message.
Receivers must be able to grasp the persuasive message.

40. The Power of Social Pressure
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Summarize what Asch discovered about conformity.
Distinguish between normative and informational influences on conformity.
Identify some conformity pressures in everyday life and how people can resist them.

41. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued
Describe Milgram’s research on obedience to authority.
Cite an important factor in resisting inappropriate demands of authority figures.

42. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Conformity and compliance pressures
Conformity – “occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure.”
The dynamics of conformity
Solomon Asch’s (1955) classic study demonstrated that people conformed easily to wrong answers given by others in a mock perception test (see Figure 7.14).
Conformity also increased, to a point, as group size increased, peaking at seven members.

43. Figure 7. 14. Stimuli used in Asch’s conformity studies
Figure Stimuli used in Asch’s conformity studies. Subjects were asked to match a standard line (top) with one of three other lines displayed on another card (bottom). The task was easy—until experimental accomplices started responding with obviously incorrect answers, creating a situation in which Asch evaluated subjects’ conformity.
Adapted from illustration on p. 35 by Sarah Love in Asch, S. (1995, November). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193(5), Copyright © 1955 by Scientific American, Inc.

44. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Conformity, continued
Conformity versus compliance
Conformity – “occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure.”
Compliance – “occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed”.

45. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Conformity, continued
The whys of conformity
Normative influence – “operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences”.
Informational influence – “operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations”.

46. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Conformity, continued
Resisting conformity pressures
Pressure can come from normative and informational influences.
The bystander effect, or “the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone”, is an example of the problem of informational influence.

47. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Conformity, continued
Tips for resisting conformity pressures
Pay more attention to social forces operating on you.
Identify someone in the group whose views match yours.
Bring along a friend with similar views if you know that you will confront pressure.

48. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Pressure from authority figures
Obedience – “is a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority”.
The dynamics of obedience
Stanley Milgram’s classic study (1963) demonstrated that people’s tendency to obey is strong, even if they are asked to harm another person (see Figure 7.16).

49. Figure 7. 16. Milgram’s (1963) experiment on obedience
Figure Milgram’s (1963) experiment on obedience. The photos show the fake shock generator and the “learner” being connected to the shock generator during an experimental session. The results of the study are summarized in the bar graph. The vast majority of subjects (65%) delivered the entire series of shocks to the learner.
Photos copyright 1965 by Stanley Milgram. From the film Obedience, distributed by The Pennsylvania State University. Reprinted by permission of Alexandra Milgram.

50. The Power of Social Pressure, continued
Obedience, continued
The causes of obedience
Obedience is strongest when
Demands increase gradually
Others take responsibility for your actions
We are motivated to meet the authority figure’s expectations
Thus, human behavior is determined more by the power of the situation than by the character of the person.

51. Application: Seeing through Compliance Tactics
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe two compliance strategies based on the principles of commitment and consistency.
Recognize some compliance strategies based on the principle of reciprocity.
Discuss how the principle of scarcity can increase a person’s desire for something.

52. Application: Compliance Tactics, continued
The consistency principle states that “once people agree to something, they will tend to stick with it”. Two common techniques are
The foot-in-the-door technique – “getting people to agree to a small request so that they agree to a larger request later” (see Figure 7.17a).
The lowball technique – “getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed”.

53. Application: Compliance Tactics, continued
The reciprocity principle exploits the tendency for people to think they should pay back in kind what they receive from others.
The door-in-the-face technique “involves making a large request that is likely to be turned down in order to increase the changes that people will agree to a smaller request later” (see Figure 7.17b).

54. Figure 7. 17. The foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face techniques
Figure The foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face techniques. These two influence techniques are essentially the reverse of each other, but both can work. (a) In the foot-in-the-door technique, you begin with a small request and work up to a larger one. (b) In the door-in-the-face technique, you begin with a large request and work down to a smaller one.

55. Application: Compliance Tactics, continued
The scarcity principle
People believe that if something is scarce, it must be good, and they are more likely to buy it.
This can be exploited by ads claiming
“Limited supply available”.
“For a limited time only”.
Order “while they last”.
“Time is running out”.

56. Interpersonal Communication
Chapter 8
Interpersonal Communication

57. The Process of Interpersonal Communication
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe various aspects of the communication process.
List several important differences between face-to-face and computer-mediated communication.
Discuss how interpersonal communication is important to adjustment.

58. Interpersonal Communication, continued
Interpersonal communication is “an interactional process in which one person sends a message to another.”
It involves at least two people.
It is a process involving a series of actions.
It is not “one-way”, but bi-directional.

59. Interpersonal Communication, continued
Components of the communication process
The sender – “person who initiates the message”.
The receiver – “person to whom the message is targeted”.
The message – “the information or meaning that is transmitted from the sender to the receiver”.

60. Interpersonal Communication, continued
Components, continued
The channel – “refers to the sensory channel through which the message reaches the receiver”.
The noise – “any stimulus that interferes with accurately expressing or understanding a message”.
The context – “environment in which communication takes place”.

61. Technology and Interpersonal Communication
Electronically mediated communication “is interpersonal communication that takes places via technology”.
Although technology offers convenience, there are some disadvantages:
Overlap between work and home.
Intrusion of private conversations into public spaces.
Absence of non-verbal cues that convey meaning in face-to-face interactions.

62. Communication and Adjustment
Effective communication is essential for many important aspects of life.
Good communication enhances satisfaction in relationships.
Poor communication is a major cause of relationship break-ups.

63. Nonverbal Communication
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
List five general principles of nonverbal communication.
Discuss the determinants and significance of personal space.
Understand what can be discerned from facial cues and eye contact.
Describe the roles of body movement, posture, and gestures in communication.
The material in this section (slides 9-25) relates to APA Goal 7.4: Demonstrate effective interpersonal communication skills.
In particular, section F: Attend to nonverbal behavior and evaluate its meaning in the communications context, is relevant here.

64. Nonverbal Communication, continued
LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued
Summarize the research findings on touching and paralanguage.
Recognize the difficulty of detecting deception, and clarify the nonverbal cues linked to deception.
Assess the significance of nonverbal sensitivity in interpersonal interactions.

65. Nonverbal Communication, continued
Nonverbal communication – “is the transmission of meaning from one person to another through means or symbols other than words”.
A great deal of information is conveyed in this manner, so it is important to recognize the general principles of nonverbal communication.

66. Nonverbal Communication, continued
General principles of nonverbal communication
It conveys emotions: facial expressions and body posture can convey how we feel without words.
It is multichanneled: we use facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, vocal tone, and body language.
It is ambiguous: body language can be difficult to interpret.

67. Nonverbal Communication, continued
General principles, continued
It may contradict verbal messages: we may say one thing, but our body conveys something different.
It is culture-bound: nonverbal signals vary from one culture to another.

68. Elements of Nonverbal Communication
Personal space
Proxemics - “the study of personal space”.
Personal space – “a zone of space surrounding a person that is felt to ‘belong’ to that person”.
Preference for amount of personal space depends on
Culture (see Figure 8.4).
Status of the individuals involved.
How well you know the person.

69. Figure 8. 4. Interpersonal distance zones
Figure Interpersonal distance zones. According to Edward Hall (1996), people like to keep a certain amount of distance between themselves and others. The distance that makes one feel comfortable depends on with whom one is interacting and the nature of the situation.

70. Elements, continued
Facial expression
Facial expressions convey basic emotions, recognized by people around the world.
However, there are culture-specific norms, called display rules, that govern the expression of emotion.
There are also gender differences in expression of emotion, with most males showing less expression than do females.

71. Elements, continued
Eye contact
Duration of eye contact is the most meaningful aspect of this channel of nonverbal communication.
Among European Americans, high levels of eye contact are associated with effective social skills and credibility.
However, eye contact is judged as offensive by other cultures (e.g., Native American tribes).

72. Elements, continued
Eye contact, continued
Eye contact also conveys intensity of feelings.
In a positive context (e.g., romantic partners), long gazes signal loving feelings, but
In a negative context (e.g., road rage), long gazes are interpreted as stares, and they make people uncomfortable.
Finally, eye contact is affected by status and gender (see Figure 8.6).

73. Figure 8. 6. Visual dominance, status, and gender
Figure Visual dominance, status, and gender. Women typically show low visual dominance (see control condition) because they are usually accorded lower status than men (Dovidio, et al. 1988). However, when researchers placed women in a high-power position and measured their visual behavior, women showed the high visual dominance pattern, and men showed the low visual dominance pattern. When men were placed in the high-power position, the visual dominance patterns reversed. Thus, visual dominance seems to be more a function of status than of gender.

74. Elements, continued
Body language
Kinesics – “the study of communication through body movements”.
An “open” posture (e.g., arms uncrossed and down at sides) conveys a relaxed state.
A “closed” posture (arms crossed) conveys defensiveness or tension.
Finally, hand gestures emphasize the words we speak.

75. Elements, continued
Touch
Where and whom we touch conveys a variety of meanings, especially status and power.
There are strong norms that govern where we touch friends.
Female-female pairs touch more often than do male-male pairs.
Cross-gender touch is interpreted as support by females, but as power or sexual interest by males.

76. Elements, continued
Paralanguage
Paralanguage – “includes all vocal cues other than the content of the verbal message itself”.
Variations in vocal emphasis can give different meanings to the same words.
Variations in speech also convey emotions (e.g., rapid speech indicates anxiety or excitement).

77. Elements, continued Detecting deception
Nonverbal cues that actually indicate deception are often different from those most people believe indicate deception (see Figure 8.9).
For example:
Liars often say less, not more.
Liars are not necessarily good “storytellers” and include less unusual content in stories.
Liars are more tense and make a more negative impression on the listener.

78. Figure 8. 9. Detecting deception from nonverbal behaviors
Figure Detecting deception from nonverbal behaviors. This chart summarizes evidence on which nonverbal cues are actually associated with deception and which are believed to be a sign of deception, based on a research review by DePaulo, Stone, and Lassiter (1985).

79. The Significance of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal sensitivity – “the ability to accurately encode (express) and decode (understand) nonverbal cues”.
Woman tend to be better encoders and decoders.
However, this may stem from higher motivation.
Thus, anyone can improve their nonverbal skills.

80. Toward More Effective Communication
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify five steps involved in making small talk.
Explain how self-disclosure is important to adjustment.
Cite some ways to reduce the risks of self-disclosure.

81. More Effective Communication, continued
LEARNING OBJECTIVES, continued
Understand the role of self-disclosure in relationship development.
Analyze cultural and gender differences in self-disclosure.
Cite four points good listeners need to keep in mind.

82. More Effective Communication, continued
Conversation skills: five steps for making successful “small talk”
Indicate you are open to conversation by commenting on your surroundings.
Introduce yourself.
Select a topic others can relate to.
Keep the conversation ball rolling.
Make a smooth exit.

83. More Effective Communication, continued
Self-disclosure – “the act of sharing information about yourself with another person” is important to adjustment for several reasons.
Sharing problems with others plays a key role in mental health.
Emotional self-disclosures lead to feelings of closeness.
Self-disclosure in romantic relationships is associated with relationship satisfaction.

84. More Effective Communication, continued
Self-disclosure, continued
Reducing the risks of self disclosure
Disclose information to others gradually.
Don’t disclose more than the other is willing to disclose.
Watch for nonverbal “stop” cues from others.
Be aware of risks associated with electronic disclosures.

85. More Effective Communication, continued
Self-disclosure, continued
Self-disclosure and relationship development
Self-disclosure varies over the course of relationships.
At the beginning, there are high levels of mutual self-disclosure, which taper off as the relationship becomes established.
In established relationships, disclosures are not necessarily reciprocated.

86. More Effective Communication, continued
Relationship development, continued
Movement away from reciprocal self-disclosures in established relationships occurs for two reasons:
There is more of a need for support than a reciprocal disclosure from the other person.
The need for privacy outweighs the need for mutual self-disclosure.

87. More Effective Communication, continued
Self-disclosure, continued
Culture, gender, and self-disclosure
Personal self-disclosures occur more in individualistic cultures, whereas disclosures about one’s group membership are the norm in collectivist cultures.
Females tend to disclose more than do males, and this trend is strongest within same-gender friendships.

88. More Effective Communication, continued
Tips for effective listening
Signal your interest in the speaker by using nonverbal cues
Face the speaker squarely.
Lean toward him or her.
Try not to cross arms and legs.
Maintain eye contact.
The material in slides 35 & 36 relate to APA Goal 7.4: Demonstrate effective interpersonal communication skills.
In particular, section A, Listen accurately and actively, is relevant here.

89. More Effective Communication, continued
Tips for effective listening, continued
Hear the other person out before you respond.
Engage in “active listening” by
Asking for clarification if information is ambiguous.
Paraphrasing what the person said by restating the speaker’s main points to ensure you have interpreted correctly.
Pay attention to the other’s nonverbal cues.

90. Communication Problems
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss some common responses to communication apprehension.
Identify five barriers to effective communication.

91. Communication Problems, continued
Communication apprehension – “or anxiety caused by having to talk with others” is usually followed by one of four responses:
Avoidance – choosing not to participate.
Withdrawal – “clamming up” in conversation you cannot escape.
Disruption – the inability to make fluent statements.
Overcommunication – (e.g., nervous speech).

92. Communication Problems, continued
Barriers to effective communication
Defensiveness – “excessive concern with protecting oneself from being hurt”.
Ambushing – listening carefully only to then verbally attack the speaker.
Motivational distortion – hearing what you want to hear.
Self-preoccupation – being so self-absorbed the other person cannot equally participate.

93. Interpersonal Conflict
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Assess the pros and cons of avoiding versus facing conflict.
Describe five types of conflicts.
Recognize five personal styles of dealing with interpersonal conflict.
Articulate six tips for coping effectively with interpersonal conflict.
The material in this section (slides 39-47) relates to APA Goal 4: Application of Psychology.
In particular, subgoal 4.2: Identify appropriate applications of psychology in solving problems, such as (d): psychology-based interventions in clinical, counseling, educational indurstrialVorganizational, community, and other settings and their empirical evaluation, (especially counseling) is relevant here.

94. Interpersonal Conflict, continued
Beliefs about conflict
Most people believe any kind of conflict is bad.
However, avoiding conflict is usually counterproductive and leads to a self-perpetuating cycle (see Figure 8.12).
It is better to confront conflicts constructively so that issues can be aired and resolved.

95. Figure 8. 12. The conflict avoidance cycle
Figure The conflict avoidance cycle. Avoiding conflict can lead to a self-perpetuating cycle: (1) people think of conflict as bad, (2) they get nervous about a conflict they are experiencing, (3) they avoid the conflict as long as possible, (4) the conflict gets out of control and must be confronted, and (5) they handle the confrontation badly. In turn, this negative experience sets the stage for avoiding conflict the next time—usually with the same negative outcome. (Adapted from Lulofs, 1994)

96. Interpersonal Conflict, continued
Five types of conflict
Pseudoconflict – false conflict from game playing.
Fact-based conflict – disagreement about factual issues.
Policy conflict – disagreement about how to handle a situation.
Value-based conflict – disagreement that occurs when people hold opposing values.
Ego-based conflict – emphasis on winning over resolving the conflict.

97. Interpersonal Conflict, continued
Styles of managing conflict
Two dimensions (concern for self and concern for others) underlie five distinct patterns of managing conflict (see Figure 8.14).
Avoiding/withdrawing (low concern for self and others).
Accommodating (low concern for self, high concern for others).
Competing/forcing (high concern for self, low concern for others).

98. Figure 8. 14. Five styles of handling interpersonal conflict
Figure Five styles of handling interpersonal conflict. In dealing with discord, individuals typically prefer one of five styles. The two dimensions of concern for self and concern for others underlie each of the five styles.

99. Interpersonal Conflict, continued
Styles of managing conflict, continued:
Compromising (moderate concern for self and others).
Collaborating (high concern for self and others).
While compromising simply involves “splitting the difference”, collaborating involves finding a solution that is maximally satisfying to both parties.

100. Interpersonal Conflict, continued
Dealing constructively with conflict
Make communication honest and open.
Use specific behavior to describe another person’s annoying habits rather than general statements about their personality.
Avoid “loaded” words.
Use a positive approach and help the other person “save face”.

101. Interpersonal Conflict, continued
Dealing constructively with conflict, continued
Limit complaints to recent behavior and to the current situation.
Assume responsibility for your own feelings and preferences.
Try to use an assertive communication style.

102. Application: Developing an Assertive Communication Style
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Distinguish among assertive, submissive, and aggressive communication.
List five steps that lead to more assertive communication.

103. Developing an Assertive Style, continued
The nature of assertiveness
Assertiveness – “involves acting in your own best interests by expressing your thoughts and feelings directly and honestly”.
In contrast, submissive communication involves “giving in” to others.
Individuals who use this style report feeling bad about being “pushovers”.

104. Developing an Assertive Style, continued
The nature of assertiveness, continued
Aggressive communication is different from assertiveness and “focuses on saying and getting what you want at the expense of others”.
Assertive communication is more adaptive than either submissive or aggressive communication, and is a skill that can be learned through assertiveness training.

105. Developing an Assertive Style, continued
Steps in assertiveness training:
Understand what assertive communication is.
Don’t forget about nonverbal cues.
Monitor your assertive communication.
Identify when you are not assertive, find out who intimidates you, on what topics, and in which situations.

106. Developing an Assertive Style, continued
Steps in assertiveness training, continued
Observe a model’s assertive communication.
Practice assertive communication by using
Covert rehearsal – imagine using assertiveness in a situation that requires it.
Role playing – ask a friend to play the role of an antagonist so you can practice.
Adopt an assertive attitude.