1. Introduction to Personality Psychology Research Methods Issues in Personality Assessment Theories of Personality Dr. Stephen Weiss January 24, 2003 Class #1

2. Personality Chapter 1: Chapter 1: What is personality psychology? What is personality psychology?

3. What do we mean??? So, when we say “she has a great personality” or “he’s a jerk”…what do we really mean? So, when we say “she has a great personality” or “he’s a jerk”…what do we really mean?

4. A generic definition "Personality may be defined as the underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and experience" "Personality may be defined as the underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and experience"

5. Assumptions and Implications of this Definition… Personality is a construct that can be used to explain and predict human behavior Personality is a construct that can be used to explain and predict human behavior Requires no specific inherent assumptions about the nature or origins of personality Requires no specific inherent assumptions about the nature or origins of personality

6. Assumptions and Implications of this Definition… There is little in such a definition that would be challenged by proponents of opposing theories of personality There is little in such a definition that would be challenged by proponents of opposing theories of personality The definition is not sufficiently specific to make predictions that are empirically testable in the sense that they can be compared with available research data about human behavior The definition is not sufficiently specific to make predictions that are empirically testable in the sense that they can be compared with available research data about human behavior

7. Gordon Allport (1897-1967) “The father of personality psychology” “The father of personality psychology” Allport (1961) Allport (1961) Personality is defined as "the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought" Personality is defined as "the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought"

8. Assumptions and Implications of this Definition: Personality is dynamic Personality is dynamic Personality is biologically based Personality is biologically based Personality is persistent across situations Personality is persistent across situations

9. Much controversy… Each of these elements suggest a relatively specific theoretical view of about the nature and origins of personality which are not universally accepted Each of these elements suggest a relatively specific theoretical view of about the nature and origins of personality which are not universally accepted Each of the elements has, at one time or another, been challenged by other theorists Each of the elements has, at one time or another, been challenged by other theorists Each of the elements is at least potentially testable in the sense that they make certain predictions that can be compared with known empirical data about human behavior Each of the elements is at least potentially testable in the sense that they make certain predictions that can be compared with known empirical data about human behavior

10. WHICH IS BETTER: SPECIFIC OR GENERIC? It depends … It depends … What's the purpose of the definition or theory: how are you going to use the definition? What's the purpose of the definition or theory: how are you going to use the definition? What is the "level of analysis": what questions are you asking and at what level of detail? What are you trying to predict or explain and at what level of detail? What is the "level of analysis": what questions are you asking and at what level of detail? What are you trying to predict or explain and at what level of detail? Is the primary intent to explain and predict human behavior (experimental or theoretical psychology)? Or to change or modify human behavior (applied or clinical psychology)? Is the primary intent to explain and predict human behavior (experimental or theoretical psychology)? Or to change or modify human behavior (applied or clinical psychology)?

11. We’ll be looking at several different perspectives of personality… Dispositional Perspective Dispositional Perspective Stable qualities even in different settings Stable qualities even in different settings Biological Perspective Biological Perspective Personality is inherited Personality is inherited Psychoanalytic Perspective Psychoanalytic Perspective Our friend Dr. Freud Our friend Dr. Freud Neoanalytic Perspective Neoanalytic Perspective Ego development, etc. Ego development, etc.

12. We’ll be looking at several different perspectives of personality… Learning Perspective Learning Perspective Behavior changes because of experience Behavior changes because of experience Phenomenological Perspective Phenomenological Perspective Inner uniqueness plus choice Inner uniqueness plus choice Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspective Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspective We are like machines We are like machines

13. Perspectives of Personality These perspectives each give us differing angles concerning how to view personality These perspectives each give us differing angles concerning how to view personality Most pertain to a certain aspect of personality – while others are grand theories that claim to give us the total model of personality (Freud intended his theory to be such) Most pertain to a certain aspect of personality – while others are grand theories that claim to give us the total model of personality (Freud intended his theory to be such)

14. Real-world applications… We’ll be spending the entire semester delving into personality psychology…we’ll look at it mainly as the experimental psychologists that we are We’ll be spending the entire semester delving into personality psychology…we’ll look at it mainly as the experimental psychologists that we are We’ll try to make sense of all this and then we’ll “give” our information to the organizational psychologists and clinical psychologists who can use it in the real world We’ll try to make sense of all this and then we’ll “give” our information to the organizational psychologists and clinical psychologists who can use it in the real world

15. Personality Psychology: Fundamental issues Individual Differences Individual Differences Intrapersonal Functioning Intrapersonal Functioning

16. Fundamental Issues Individual differences – no two people are the same Individual differences – no two people are the same “Why are some children more afraid of strangers than others” “Why are some children more afraid of strangers than others” “Why do some people attribute success to their abilities and failure to bad luck, and others attribute successes to luck and failures to their lack of abilities?” “Why do some people attribute success to their abilities and failure to bad luck, and others attribute successes to luck and failures to their lack of abilities?”

17. Fundamental Issues Intrapersonal functioning Intrapersonal functioning What Allport called “dynamic organization” – same processes are being engaged but different inner motives are constantly at work depending on the situation – the reason why sometimes we go out and party and sometimes we stay in to read What Allport called “dynamic organization” – same processes are being engaged but different inner motives are constantly at work depending on the situation – the reason why sometimes we go out and party and sometimes we stay in to read

18. Scientific Method Continuous cycle between theory and research – constant modifications Parsimony – keep theories simple – excess baggage is confusing (never-mind boring)

19. Methods in the Study of Personality Theories of Personality Chapter 2

20. Henry Murray (1893-1988) At this time most of his American experimental psychologist contemporaries were studying rat behavior At this time most of his American experimental psychologist contemporaries were studying rat behavior Murray studied individuals at a variety of levels Murray studied individuals at a variety of levels

21. Murray’s Personology Refers to his unique interdisciplinary approach to the study of the individual Refers to his unique interdisciplinary approach to the study of the individual Employs a wide range of clinical, psychoanalytic, and experimental methods Employs a wide range of clinical, psychoanalytic, and experimental methods Attempted to understand the whole person Attempted to understand the whole person

22. Idiographic approach to personology… Centers on the individual, using techniques appropriate to understanding the uniqueness of each person Centers on the individual, using techniques appropriate to understanding the uniqueness of each person Diaries, autobiographies, letters, etc.– case studies Diaries, autobiographies, letters, etc.– case studies Murray focused mainly on this idiographic approach Murray focused mainly on this idiographic approach

23. Nomethic approach to personology… Study of large groups of individuals in order to infer general variables or universal principles Study of large groups of individuals in order to infer general variables or universal principles Others focused on this approach Others focused on this approach

24. Murray’s approach Contributed to the multidisciplinary approach to understanding personality but does his case study approach have any flaws? Contributed to the multidisciplinary approach to understanding personality but does his case study approach have any flaws?

25. Case Studies Features: Features: Intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person or situation Intensive examination of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person or situation Strengths: Strengths: Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex, or rare phenomenon Provide detailed descriptive analysis of new, complex, or rare phenomenon Pitfalls: Pitfalls: May not provide representative picture of phenomena May not provide representative picture of phenomena

26. Research Participants 90% of researchers work at college universities 90% of researchers work at college universities Most participants (subjects) come in research studies are college students mostly from Intro to psych courses Most participants (subjects) come in research studies are college students mostly from Intro to psych courses Often a requirement in most universities Often a requirement in most universities

27. Sears (1986) Looked at the major journals in social psych from 1980-1985 and found this: Looked at the major journals in social psych from 1980-1985 and found this: 74% are college undergrads 74% are college undergrads 51% from psych classes 51% from psych classes 8% are other students (probably grad students)…so that means more than 8 out of every 10 subjects are students 8% are other students (probably grad students)…so that means more than 8 out of every 10 subjects are students

28. Problems with this??? So, we have the majority being 17-19 year-olds and overloaded with white, middle-class as well So, we have the majority being 17-19 year-olds and overloaded with white, middle-class as well Are they representative of the general population? Are they representative of the general population?

29. Sears (1986) says no! The participants in the many research studies are all college students, and college students do differ from other people in some respects The participants in the many research studies are all college students, and college students do differ from other people in some respects Therefore, an important question is whether these findings generalize to other groups of people Therefore, an important question is whether these findings generalize to other groups of people

30. Orne (1962) Orne (1962) looked at this issue and raised some serious questions about psychological studies in general… Orne (1962) looked at this issue and raised some serious questions about psychological studies in general… (1) Do people behave differently just because it’s a psychological study? (1) Do people behave differently just because it’s a psychological study? (2) Must be careful of “experimenter bias” which can occur when the experimenter knows the conditions participants are in (2) Must be careful of “experimenter bias” which can occur when the experimenter knows the conditions participants are in

31. Variables: Dependent and Independent DV = Variable (behavior) you are measuring DV = Variable (behavior) you are measuring Anger Anger IV = variable or variables being manipulated IV = variable or variables being manipulated Age Age Gender Gender Educational level Educational level Socioeconomic level Socioeconomic level

32. Experiments Features: Features: Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable Manipulation of an independent variable and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable Strengths: Strengths: Can establish a cause-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables Can establish a cause-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables Pitfalls: Pitfalls: Confounding variables may prevent valid conclusions Confounding variables may prevent valid conclusions

33. Correlations Features Features Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one variable is related to another Statistically speaking, it refers to how strongly one variable is related to another Strengths Strengths Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore further Allows researcher to better formulate their hypothesis – gives ideas that we can explore further Weaknesses Weaknesses Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a second) Data can sometimes fool us (we’ll get to this in a second)

34. Correlations Positive Correlations Positive Correlations Two variables either increase or decrease together Two variables either increase or decrease together Hypothetical Example: Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as did the number of rainy days During 1988, the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as did the number of rainy days

35. Correlations Negative Correlations Negative Correlations The variables move in opposite directions The variables move in opposite directions Hypothetical Example: Hypothetical Example: During 1988, the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as the number of rainy days decreased During 1988, the number of pregnancies increased at the same rate as the number of rainy days decreased Correlations do not mean cause and effect Correlations do not mean cause and effect

36. Correlation not Causation Correlation not Causation

37. Research issues… Research generates more questions than answers… Research generates more questions than answers… Frustrating…yes at times Frustrating…yes at times Challenging…almost always Challenging…almost always Fun…if you’re crazy like me Fun…if you’re crazy like me Humility vs. Arrogance Humility vs. Arrogance Use humility please Use humility please We don’t “prove” anything We don’t “prove” anything We can infer that an effect is real We can infer that an effect is real

38. Research issues… Statistical Significance Statistical Significance If it can be shown that an effect is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance or random factors – the researcher infers that the effect is real If it can be shown that an effect is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance or random factors – the researcher infers that the effect is real Use words like: Use words like: appears appears evidence supports evidence supports or if you have gathered extremely convincing evidence you might use: or if you have gathered extremely convincing evidence you might use: strongly indicates strongly indicates

39. Issues in Personality Assessment Theories of Personality Chapter 3

40. A tough job? Why? Assessment Assessment The measuring of personality The measuring of personality

41. Methods for obtaining data… Observations Observations Observer ratings (overt-behavioral assessments) Observer ratings (overt-behavioral assessments) Used mostly with children Used mostly with children Self-reports Self-reports The individual records their behaviors The individual records their behaviors Inventory Inventory Tests such as the MMPI which access several dimensions of personality – easy-going, highly motivated, type A or B, etc. Tests such as the MMPI which access several dimensions of personality – easy-going, highly motivated, type A or B, etc.

42. Making sure things are consistent… Reliability Reliability Degree of consistency or repeatability Degree of consistency or repeatability Internal Reliability Internal Reliability Inter-rater Reliability Inter-rater Reliability Test-Retest Reliability Test-Retest Reliability

43. Making sure things are meaningful… Validity Validity Are we measuring what we intend to measure? Are we measuring what we intend to measure? Construct Validity Construct Validity Criterion Validity Criterion Validity Convergent Validity Convergent Validity Discriminate Validity Discriminate Validity Face Validity Face Validity

44. Making sure things are meaningful… Operational Definitions Operational Definitions A definition that explains how you will measure a construct A definition that explains how you will measure a construct Clearly stated descriptions of physical events Clearly stated descriptions of physical events Takes all guess-work out of the equation Takes all guess-work out of the equation

45. Problems that get in the way of assuring validity When we get a response set of acquiescence When we get a response set of acquiescence This is the tendency to say yes to everything This is the tendency to say yes to everything Remedy? Remedy? Response set aimed at achieving social desirability -- people want to see themselves as good, important, etc. Response set aimed at achieving social desirability -- people want to see themselves as good, important, etc. Remedy? Remedy?

46. How do they decide what to measure? Empirical approach Empirical approach Relies more on data to decide on the items making up the assessment device Relies more on data to decide on the items making up the assessment device Inductive approach Inductive approach Data decides which qualities are worth measuring Data decides which qualities are worth measuring Criterion keying – find out which items are being answered differently by different groups Criterion keying – find out which items are being answered differently by different groups For example: do normals answer the items differently than patients, etc. For example: do normals answer the items differently than patients, etc.