1. Methods of Psychology Hypothesis: A tentative statement about how or why something happens. e.g. non experienced teachers use corporal punishment more than experienced teachers. * Independent variable: manipulated by experimenter, cause (teachers experience). *Dependant variable: expected to change when the independent variable change, effect → student's ways of punishment 1

2. Types of researches in psychology A-Experimental research: -A research designated to answer questions about cause and effect (causal relationship).: (1) Experimental group: experience the experimental condition. (2) Control group: has similar characteristics to the experimental group, but does not experience the experimental condition. 2

3. Types of researches in psychology… cont. B- Correlation research: Test two variables are related to each other. - Positive correlation: means that a high incidence of one variable accompanied by a high incidence of the other. -Negative correlation: means that a high incidence of one variable accompanied by low incidence of the other. 3

4. Types of researches in psychology… cont. - Correlation coefficient: indicate the strength of correlation between study variables. Ex: If you know that a student is intelligent, you predict that he will make good in the exam (positive correlation). 4

5. Types of researches in psychology… cont. D- Naturalistic observations: researcher use covert observation naturally. - psychologists can record behaviors as it occurs in real life. - Participant observation: the researchers join the group to be studied to record their thoughts and feelings. 5

6. Types of researches in psychology… cont. E- Case Study: -Research method in which one individual is explored in depth. (from all aspects). -used when the disorder is rare and few cases are available as in multiple personality disorder. 6

7. Types of researches in psychology… cont. F- Longitudinal study: Research method in which group of people is examined at intervals over a number of years. Used in developmental psychology, (more reliable but it is time consuming). 7

8. Types of researches in psychology… cont. G- Cross sectional study: Research method in which people of different ages are examined simultaneously, example: IQ (intelligence quotient) to people of different ages and then draw differences of intelligence through life cycle. 8

9. Data collection 1- Observation: is a simple method of data collection : a.covert observation: in which people are not informed they are being observed (limitation is lack of ethical consideration). b. Overt observation: people are informed they are being observed, (ethical but they may change their behavior positively). 9

10. 2- Interviews: letting the researchers to speak with their subjects. (validity and consistency may be compromised). 3-Questionnaires: less time, useful with large group of people. 4- Self-reports: people are asked to report about their thinking and feeling. (used with highly educated people, as in cognitive psychology). 10

11. Evaluation of Psychological measurement techniques Measurement tools are evaluated for its accuracy through: 1- Validity: a measurement device is valid if it does measurer what it is intended to measure. Ex. If you try to gauge intelligence by measuring the shape of person’s head, (invalid measurement) head shape has nothing to do with intelligence. 11

12. 2-Reliability: - Device is reliable when it yields constantly similar results, when it is applied repeatedly at the same sample under similar conditions. 12

13. Sampling sample: segment (part) of population being studied. -If psychologists are going study human behavior, they can’t ask the whole population, they use sample, then they generalize their conclusions to the general target population. 13

14. Good method of sample selection based on: a- Random sample: every one in the total population has an equal chance of being included. b- Representative sample: subgroups with distinct characteristics are included according to their proportion in the total population. (includes limits). 14

15. *Bias in psychological research: Researchers may make their hypothesis true during data collection and application of tool. Ex. when conducting interview they smile at desirable responses. 15

16. The ethics of research in psychology: 1-Informed consent: participating in study is voluntary, with agreement. 2-Freedom from harm: protect participants from physical and mental harm. 3-Privacy and confidentiality 4- Experimentation is forbidden to be on human firstly. 16

17. The ethics of research in psychology … cont. 5- Consideration of cultural or religious background of the subjects. 6- Subjects should receive full information before study. 7- Subjects has the right to withdraw at any stage of study. 8- Sharing the results with subjects and professionals in the community. 17