1. Week 2 – Hinduism & Jainism

2. Review of Week 1 Why is it important to study other religions?
Global workplace
People from other religions see the world differently than you do

3. Overview of Week 2 Explain how Hinduism developed into a religion.
Describe the major tenets of the Hindu belief system.

4. Hinduism
The world’s oldest religion, has no beginning—it precedes recorded history
Has no human founder
Is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally experience the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle of consciousness where man and God are one

5. Development of Hinduism
Has been practiced in India since at least 3000 BCE
Originated around the Indus river valley
‘Hindu’ is derived from ‘Indus’
Used by the British to describe a great variety of religious practices
Not a native term
Santana Dharma – Eternal Truth
“Hinduism.” This term
does not appear in any of the old texts. It is derived from a name applied by foreigners
to the people living in the region of the Indus River, and introduced in
the nineteenth century under colonial British rule as a category for censustaking.
Hinduism is a plethora of religious beliefs, religious communities, solitary ascetics, spiritual guides, and sacred activities. Few Hindus would call their religion Hinduism (a convenient catch-word for the immense diversities); instead, they would usually identify themselves according to their caste or local community. In fact, the closest Hindu word comparable to ‘religion’ is probably dharma. It includes such concepts as righteousness, natural or unchanging laws, social and religious duties, truth, faith, and justice. Some Hindus refer to their faith as sanatana dharma, ‘eternal truth.’ Dharma is often translated as “religion,” but its meaning encompasses
matters of duty, natural law, social welfare, ethics, health, and transcendental
realization. Dharma is thus a holistic approach to social coherence and the good
of all, corresponding to order in the cosmos.
Still, the vast majority of Hindus are religiously characterized by local customs, age-old traditions, a wide array of deities, and canons of mythic literature, each unique to particular gods and goddesses. According to tradition, there are actually 333 million deities in India. The
feeling is that the divine has countless faces.
there is no central tradition that
can be called Hinduism proper. Truth is one; sages call it by various names. Rig Veda

6. Historically, the foundational religious writings of the Hindus, the Vedas (which means “knowledge” or “wisdom”), began to emerge in the middle of the second millennium B.C.E. in the Indus River valley
(now Pakistan) when the Aryan people assumed local dominancy. From this culture arose collections of hymns, many addressed to gods and goddesses; ritual treatises; incantations; herbal remedies; and, especially, philosophical and theological treatises and dialogues (in the Aranyakas and Upanishads sections of the Vedas) that have continued to influence Hindu philosophical and religious speculation greatly.

7. Hinduism It was not started as a system, like Islam or Christianity
It is the product of the seers of the Vedas. It was developed from age to age by the teachings of Avataras, Rishis, Vedas, the Upanishads, the Gita and the Itihasas
Hinduism is also known by the names Sanatana Dharma and Vaidika Dharma
Sanatana Dharma means eternal religion, the Ancient Law
Vaidika Dharma means the religion of the Vedas.
The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism.

8. Stages of Hinduism
Nature worshiping with prayers, chants, and sacred formulas -- ~ time of the Aryan invasion and the blending of religions
Priestly Hinduism with the Brahmanas and a focus on sacrifice ~1000 – 800 BC(E)
Philosophic Hinduism with the development of the Upanishads ~800 – 600 BC(E)
Legalistic Hinduism with the Code of Manu & stress upon obedience to a law ~250 BC(E)
Devotional Hinduism as exemplified in the Bhavagad-Vita 1st century AD (CE)
Popular Hinduism with temples, shrines, sacred places, pilgrimages, belief in transmigration since 1st century
Comparison of World Religions. Heydt (P ).

9. Background - Pantheon
The holy Hindu scriptures, the Veda, propound the idea of 33 principal deities in the earlier Hindu pantheon. Because of a mistranslation this has sometimes been interpreted as 330 million – the word for ‘types or kinds’ and the word for 10 million (crore) are the same.
This, naturally has lead to accusations of rampant pantheism when it really means that the One God had 33 distinct aspects, all with separate images and functions.
The elements of World Religions. Flowers (P. 71).

10. Historical Figures Rishis – the ‘forest seers’ Shankara
Wrote down the Vedas
Vyasa- mythical (?) compiler/author of Vedas
Shankara
‘All plurality and
differentiation is
nothing but an
Illusion.’
Hinduism has long been noted for its ‘enlightened’ teachers. ‘Swami’ and ‘guru’ have become synonymous with those who have experienced the ‘truth,’ who have tapped on to the source of permanent, immutable wisdom. The cultural origins of this go back to the Vedas. The Aranyakas (which means “compositions for the forest”) and the Upanishads (which means “sitting near a teacher”) introduced the forest seers to the Hindus. The Vedic define seers ‘saw’ the truth (often in the form of mantras) and orally transmitted it to their disciples. Some of these seers were married, some were women, and others ascetics.
Shankara (late 8th-9th century C.E.), who founded the Advaita school; established the first, widespread network of Hindu monasteries; and taught that God is real while all else is illusion (because of the power of maya), that the human spirit is one with God, and that one can realize his or her identity with God through meditation this is perhaps the most common ‘theological’ understanding of Hinduism.
Shankara, philosopher and theologian, was born in Kerala in southern India. He became a Hindu ascetic and exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy. Shankara reformed Hinduism with a monistic interpretation of the Vedanta, which ascribed all reality to a single unitary source, which he identified as "Brahma". He declared all plurality and differentiation as nothing but an illusion.

11. Mahatmas (Great-Souled One) Gandhi
Mahatma (‘Great-Souled One’) Gandhi (19th-20th century C.E.), who promoted simple living, non-violent resistance to oppression, tolerance for religious diversity, compassion for the socially marginalized, and self-rule for India.

12. Background – Central Tenets
Central tenets of Hinduism:
Everything in existence is an expression of God
The proper aim of anyone’s life is to come close, realize, and merge with God
World delights are temptations that divert the person from pursuing his true purpose of coming near to God
The elements of World Religions. Flowers

13. Hinduism: Central Beliefs
Plurality of Beliefs
Cyclical nature of universe
Creation and destruction
Brahman
Reincarnation (samsara)
Karma
Goal of human life: moksha
Truth or God is One.
Our real nature is divine.
The purpose of our life is to realize the One in our own soul.
There are innumerable spiritual paths, all leading to this realization of divinity.44
Although the plurality [makes it hard to make categories] of Hindu thought is obvious, some beliefs tend to be common to most of the Hindus. The universe seems to be a polarity of creation/destruction[thus Siva as an important deity] and expansion/contraction, with endless cycles of beginnings and endings. Some of these common beliefs include:
At a deeper level, this cyclic change is an illusion; the real nature of existence is the spirit or God (Brahman), which is often believed to be like the human soul (atman) Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, can be manifest in many ways, in particular, for most worshippers, through the numerous gods and goddesses of the Hindu tradition.
The human soul journeys through a number of reincarnations (samsara); the law of karma determines the nature of these reincarnations
KARMA An important related concept is that of karma. It means action, and
also the consequences of action. Every act we make, and even every thought and
every desire we have, shape our future experiences. Our life is what we have
made it. And we ourselves are shaped by what we have done: “As a man acts, so
does he become A man becomes pure through pure deeds, impure through
impure deeds.”6 Not only do we reap in this life the good or evil we have sown;
they also follow us after physical death, affecting our next incarnation. Ethically,
this is a strong teaching, for our every move has far-reaching consequences.
The ultimate goal, however, is not creation of good lives by good deeds, but a
clean escape from the karma-run wheel of birth, death, and rebirth, which is called
samsara. To escape from samsara is to achieve moksha, or liberation from the limitations
of space, time, and matter through realization of the immortal Absolute.
Many lifetimes of upward-striving incarnations are required to reach this transcendence
of earthly miseries. This desire for liberation from earthly existence is
one of the underpinnings of classical Hinduism, and of Buddhism as well.
The goal of human life is the soul’s freedom (moksha) from rebirth, which can be achieved through a variety of paths including asceticism and meditation, meritorious acts, and great devotion to one’s chosen god—each path leading to some form of union with the divine

14. Commonalities
1. Have deep roots in the Vedas and other scriptures but also in direct personal experiences of the truth through meditation.
2. Hold ethics to be central to orderly social life. They attribute suffering to the law of karma, thereby suggesting incentives to more ethical behavior.
3. Hold that the ultimate cause of suffering is people’s ignorance of their true nature, the Self, which is omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, perfect, and eternal.

15. Hinduism
Who is a Hindu?
“Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence; recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are diverse; and the realization of the truth that the number of gods to be worshiped is large, that indeed is the distinguishing feature of the Hindu religion.”
-India’s Supreme Court, 1995

16. Indian Supreme court definition of Hinduism
The Indian Supreme court has formally defined Hindu beliefs in a way that affirms universality rather than exclusiveness. According to the Court’s definition, to be a Hindu means:
1. Acceptance and reverence for the Vedas as the foundation of Hindu philosophy;
2. A spirit of tolerance, and willingness to understand and appreciate others’ points of view, recognizing that truth has many sides;
3. Acceptance of the belief that vast cosmic periods of creation, maintenance, and dissolution continuously recur;
4. Acceptance of belief in reincarnation;
5. Recognition that paths to truth and salvation are many;
6. Recognition that there may be numerous gods and goddesses to worship, without necessarily believing in worship through idols;
7. Unlike other religions, absence of belief in a specific set of philosophic concepts

17. Nature of the Divine Brahman The ultimate reality behind all things
Impersonal and beyond description; without attributes; indescribable
Or – manifest in a personal way, as in a particular deity (such as Siva, Krishna, or Vishnu)
The name Brahman (God) is frequently used to identify the ground and sources behind all things. For some of the Hindu mystics Brahman is impersonal and beyond description. This is God without attributes (nirguna Brahman), the God of the mystical experience of Ultimate Reality beyond all things. For the majority of Hindus, however, God is a personal Reality characterized by many attributes (saguna Brahman).
There are many of these personal gods and goddesses graphically depicted in the Hindu pantheon. Two of the prominent deities in the early Vedas were Indra, god of sky and war, and Agni, god of fire and sacrifice. More popular in contemporary Hinduism are Vishnu, creator and preserver of the universe, beloved of Lakshmi (goddess of fortune), and the full manifestation of God, who has blessed his devotees by periodically incarnating as an Avatar such as Krishna, Kurma (a turtle), and even Buddha; Shiva, the cosmic, dancing destroyer who can annihilate the cycle of samsara and is often associated with his consort Parvati (the divine Mother, sometimes called Durga or Kali); Ganesha, the elephant-headed son of Shiva who has power over the important events and transitions of life; and Sarasvati, the goddess of learning and music.
But behind all the myriad aspects of divinity, the
sages perceived one unseen reality. This reality, beyond human understanding,
ceaselessly creates and sustains everything that exists, encompassing all time,
space, and causation.
Samkhya philosophy holds that there are two states of reality. One is the
Purusha, the Self, which is eternally wise, pure, and free, beyond change, beyond
cause. The other is Prakriti, the cause of the material universe. [This is dualism]
Whereas Samkhya is a dualistic system, Advaita (“non-dualist”) Vedanta is generally
monistic, positing a single reality. It is based on the Upanishads: its founder is
said to be Vyasa, systematizer of the Upanishads. Shankara reorganized the teachings
many centuries later, probably between the eighth and ninth centuries CE.
Whereas one view of the Upanishads is that the human self (atman) is an emanation
of Brahman, Shankara insisted that the atman and Brahman are actually
one. According to Shankara, our material life is an illusion. It is like a momentary
wave arising from the ocean, which is the only reality.

18. The Godhead
Upanishads first suggested the idea of a God (Brahman) without form (akara) or quality (guna) around 6th century AD (CE)
Therefore the godhead must be represented by aspects
The Trimurti (3 major aspects):
Brahma – creative aspect of Brahman
Consort is Sarawati goddess of Arts and Learning
Vishnu – preserver aspect of Brahman
Consort is Laxmi goddess of Good Fortune
Rama and Krishna are avatars of Vishnu
Shiva – destroyer aspect of Brahman, also fertility and regeneration
Consort is Parvati who is worshiped in two forms
Benign form worshiped as Shakti – Mother Goddess
Destructive form worshiped as Durga or Kali – who demands blood sacrifice
Both aspects combined form the dualistic play of cosmic forces

19. Trimurti or Triad Brahma, the Creator god
Balance between Vishnu and Shiva
Vishnu, the Protector god
Shiva, the Destroyer god
Vishnu and Shiva represent opposite forces

20. Brahma, the Creator
Brahma is depicted as red in color with four heads, bearded faces, and four arms
His hands hold a kamandalu, his bow or a rosary, a sacrificial ladle, and the Vedas.
Brahma is sometimes depicted as sitting on a lotus.
The four Vedas are said to have originated from his head.
The four castes (see Varna) are also believed to have originated from Brahma: the Brahmins from his head, the Kshatriyas from his arms, the Vaishyas from his thighs, and the Shudras from his feet. 

21. Vishnu

22. Siva

23. Vedic gods Surya, the Sun god Surya is linked with Agni and Vayu
Agni, the Fire god
Was one of the most popular of the Vedic deities
He acted as a mediator between gods and humans which often involved aburning a sacrifice to the gods
Indra, the Warrior leader
He would lead the Vedic gods in battles against demons
He was strong, brave and a great eater and drinker
Vayu, the god of the air and wind
Often linked with Indra and his chariot
Involved in conflicts with Vishnu
Varuna, the god of the sky and water
He is all-knowing and all-seeing and king of the Vedic gods
He had the power to punish sins
To please him one had to lead a virtuous life

24. Vishnu, the Protector
Vishnu, the Preserver God, is the protector of dharma (righteousness) and the guardian of humanity
His particular task is the conservation or preservation of the Divine Order in the world
Vishnu has had10 avatars or incarnations
He assumes these and comes down to earth in order to help humanity
In reliefs, sculptures, and paintings Vishnu is shown possessing 4 arms and has a long and narrow sign in the shape of a U inscribed on his forehead
His followers wear the same sign.

25. Avatars of Vishnu Matsya, the fish avatar Kurma, the tortoise avatar
Varaha, the boar avatar
Narasimha, the half-man, half-lion avatar
Vamana, the dwarf avatar
Parashurama, “Rama with the axe” avatar
Rama, the Lord Rama avatar
Krishna, demon king Kamsa avatar
Buddha, ninth avatar
Kalki, the Final avatar

26. Shiva, the Destroyer Shiva sits on Mount Kailasa in silent meditation
He is the king of yogis and the original teacher of spiritual science
The message of Shiva for the spiritual seeker is to become one with Shiva's consciousness by meditating within to experience the Absolute

27. Shakti, the Female Aspect of the gods
Sarasvati, the consort of Brahma
Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu
Shiva’s consorts take on many forms
Parvati, the benign
Durga, the fearsome

28. Sarasvati
Sarasvati, the consort of Lord Brahma, is the Hindu goddess of learning and the creative arts. With two of her four hands, she plays upon a stringed instrument called a veena; her third hand holds a sacred book; and the fourth, which bears a rosary, is raised in blessing. She is usually depicted seated on a white swan or a peacock.

29. Sarasvati
Sarasvati is the Hindu Goddess of all arts: music, painting, sculpture, dance, and writing.
She is credited with presenting the gift of writing to mankind so that her songs could be written down and preserved.
Sarasvati is often depicted on the back of a swan or peacock, and with four arms, with which she plays the lute or drum and bestows jeweled blessings.
She is the Goddess of eloquence, and words pour from her like a sweetly flowing river.
One myth of this Goddess is that She is a jealous rival of the Goddess of wealth, Lakshmi, and that pursuing wealth alone will assure that Sarasvati's gifts will desert you.

30. Lakshmi
Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth. She is also called 'Sri' ' Money, grain, cattle, land, gold, and silver are forms of wealth. Everybody worships Lakshmi because one gets wealth if Lakshmi grants it.
Wife of Vishnu. In different incarnations of Vishnu she married Sri Rama as Sita, Sri Krishna as Rukmini and Sri Venkateshwara as Padmavati. Devotees believe that Lakshmi resides in a place where virtue, righteousness, truth and compassion prevail.

31. Parvati, the Benign Consort of Lord Shiva.
By rigorous penance she won over Shiva, himself a great ascetic.
Mother of Shanmukha and Ganesha.
By becoming the wife of Shiva she paved the way for the spread of peace and felicity in the world.

32. Ganesha Ganesha is the son of Shiva and Parvati
He is the god of good luck
People pray to him to remove any obstacles they might face, especially before new undertakings such as moving, marriage or exams

33. Hinduism
A. Scriptures
1. Vedas
2. Upanishads
3. Bhagavad Gita
4. Puranas

34. Sacred Texts Vedas Four collections of texts (Shruti)
Shruti and Smriti
Four collections of texts (Shruti)
Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Arthava-Veda
Mostly hymns and rituals
Upanishads – last of the Vedas
a shift to a more internal and speculative religion with the introduction of reincarnation and the importance of moksha
Hindu sacred writings are divided into two categories: shruti, the authoritative, revealed scriptures of the Vedas which were ‘heard’ and recorded by the Vedic seers, and the less-authoritative but still highly regarded smriti, which were works based on what their human authors ‘remembered’ about the revelations given to the Hindus. The latter include the epics the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as the Laws of Manu.
The Vedas consist of four collections of texts: Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Arthava-Veda. Much of the Vedas are comprised of hymns to gods and goddesses and and ritual treatises. However, the last of the Vedas, the Upanishads, reveal a shift to a more internal and speculative religion with the introduction of reincarnation and the importance of moksha.
Although their origins and antiquity are still unknown, the Vedas themselves
can be examined. They are a revered collection of ancient sacred hymns comprising
four parts, which appear to have developed over time. The earliest are the
Samhitas, hymns of praise in worship of deities. Then appeared the Brahmanas,
directions about performances of the ritual sacrifices to the deities. The Brahmanas
explain the symbolic correspondences between the microcosm of the ritual process
and the “real world” in which rituals are performed. Some people went to the
forests to meditate as recluses; their writings form the third part of the Vedas—the
Aranyakas, or “forest treatises.” The last of the Vedas are the Upanishads, consisting
of teaching from highly realized spiritual masters. They explain the personal
transformation that results from psychic participation in the ritual process.
These sacred teachings seem to have been written down by the middle of the
first millennium BCE, though the Indian people and some scholars feel that they
are far older. We know that the Vedas are much older than their earliest written
forms. After being revealed to sages, they were transmitted orally from teacher to
student and may then have been written down over a period of eight or nine
hundred years.
According to orthodox Hindus, the Vedas are not the work of any humans.
They are the breath of the eternal, as “heard” by the ancient sages, or rishis, and
later compiled by Vyasa (see page 94).
The Vedas hold an honored position in Hindu religious life. Nevertheless, since Hinduism is not sustained by one particular ecclesiastical body, nor theologically dependent upon one body of sacred writings, nor loyal to one particular prophet, founder or religious creed, the Vedas have generally been relegated to the religious elite (priests and intellectuals). Most Hindus are more familiar with the epic stories, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
The word Upanishad embraces
the idea of the devoted disciple sitting down by the teacher to receive private
spiritual instruction about the highest reality, loosening all doubts and destroying
all ignorance. Emphasis is placed not on outward ritual performances, as in the
earlier Vedic religion, but on inner experience as the path to realization and
immortality.

35. Sacred Texts Mahabharata, Ramayana & Code of Manu Epic poems
Mahabharata is loooooong…
Ramanya contains the Bhagavad Gita
Establishes Rama as the model for Hindu life
Grounds for Bhakti – intense personal devotion to a particular deity
Code of Manu: laws governing all aspects of life, including the proper conduct of rulers, dietary restrictions, marriage laws, daily rituals, purification rites, social laws, and ethical guidance. [around 100 A.D.]
The Mahabharata, the world’s longest poem, The other famous Hindu epic is the Mahabharata, a Sanskrit
poem of more than 100,000 verses.
The Mahabharata (Devanagari: महाभारत, phonetically Mahābhārata - see note), sometimes just called Bharata, is one of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. Traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, it is the longest literary epic poem in the world. Besides being hailed as one of the greatest literary accomplishments of humanity, it is also of immense religious and philosophical importance in India. In particular, the Bhagavad Gita, which is one of its chapters (Bhishmaparva), is a central sacred text of Hinduism.
The title may be translated as "History of the Great India" or, more accurately, "the Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty" (bhārata means the progeny of Bharata, the king believed to have founded the Indian kingdom of Bhāratavarsha; "Bharat" has equal status as the official name of India in all Indian governments today and is still commonly used today). The work is part of the Hindu itihaasas, literally "that which happened", along with the Puranas and Ramayana. The full version contains more than 100,000 verses (total over 200,000), making it around four times longer than the Bible, and seven times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey combined. It's around 2.5 million words. [from wikipedia]
character Rama as the model for Hindu life.
The eighteenth book of the Mahabharata, which may have originally been an
independent mystical poem, is the Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of the Supreme
Exalted One”). Krishna, revered as a glorious manifestation of the Supreme,
appears as the charioteer of Arjuna, who is preparing to fight on the virtuous side
of a battle that will pit brothers against brothers. The battle provides the occasion
for a treatise about the conflict that may arise between our earthly duties and our
spiritual aspirations.

36. Ritual and Practice Bhakti
Great variety of expressions of devotion, depending on which deity one is devoted to.
“The Hindu mind is averse to assigning an unalterable or rigidly fixed form or name to the deity. Hence it is that in Hinduism we have innumerable god-forms and countless divine names. And, it is a truth that is recognized by all Hindus that obeisance offered to any of these forms and names reaches the one supreme God.”
Eventually bhakti—intense devotion to a personal
manifestation of Brahman—became the heart of Hinduism as the majority of
people now experience it. [and each deity has a different worship expression] After a period when Brahmanic ritual and philosophy dominated Sanatana Dharma, the bhakti approach came to prominence around 600 CE.
The Hindus have many rituals (samskaras) for the various stages of life. Since it is only the soul that survives death, Hindu funerals typically entail cremation. The ashes and bones of the deceased are retrieved from the funeral pyre and usually scattered on some sacred waterways. Following a death, the immediate family is considered polluted from twelve days up to a year. Scriptures are read and food offerings made to the departed soul until the restrictions are lifted.
Over time elaborate fire sacrifice rituals were created, controlled by brahmins
(priests). Specified verbal formulas, sacred chants, and sacred actions were to be
used by the priests to invoke the breath behind all of existence. This universal breath
was later called Brahman, the Absolute, the Supreme Reality. The verbal formulas
were called mantras; their sound was believed to evoke the reality they named. The
language used was Sanskrit. It was considered a re-creation of the actual soundforms
of objects, actions, and qualities, as heard by ancient sages in deep meditation.
Purification is also essential to temple worship. Most Hindu worship is individual instead of communal. In either case, whether visiting the temple on one’s own or observing the daily priestly rites with others, the worshipper must purify himself or herself by cleansing the body with water from tanks placed outside the temple; for the worshipper not only sees the deity but is seen by the deity as well.
India is a place of pilgrimage. At times, the concentration of Hindu pilgrims—especially near Allahabad where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers meet—exceeds the number of Muslims who gather near Mecca. Sacred temples, birthplaces of Avatars, fords of rivers (which symbolize the crossing over from this world to the next), the Himalayas, Varanasi (formerly Benares, and said to the embodiment of Shiva), and the Ganges River (where devotees collect the sacred waters for later purification rites as well) are some of the many popular pilgrimage sites.
Whether on the move or not, some of the Hindus practice severe bodily mortifications. Ascetics fast, follow strict diets and sexual restraint, and engage in intense physical and mental exercises. Along with this is a tradition, followed by some, of renouncing one’s family and possession at old age and living a homeless, simple, wandering life of a holy man (sannyasin).

37. Devotional disciplines
Yoga – means ‘to yoke.’
Spiritual seekers are generally encouraged to engage in disciplines that clear the mind and support a state of serene, detached awareness. This desired state of balance, purity, wisdom, and peacefulness of mind is described as sattvic, in contrast with active, restless states or lethargic, dull states. The practices for increasing sattvic qualities are known collectively as yoga. There are four main yogic paths, suited to different kinds of human personalities—raja, jnana, karma, and bhakti.
Yoga means to ‘yoke,’ or, for the Hindus, to unite one’s spirit with the divine. In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna describes ways of yoga: the way of action (karma yoga), the way of knowledge (jnana yoga), and the way of devotion (bhakti yoga). Karma yoga focuses on good deeds without attachment to their consequences. Jnana yoga involves intensive study of sacred texts that may lead to a transforming wisdom which breaks the bonds of karma. Bhakti yoga promotes complete surrender to one’s chosen deity. Westerners are more familiar with the yoga that combines mental and physical disciplines. It is called raja yoga and associated with the ancient Yoga Sutras of Patangali. Hatha yoga is that part of raja yoga that emphasizes the postures and exercises that help to develop control over the body.

38. 4 types of yogic paths Raja yoga Jhana yoga Karma yoga Bhakti yoga
Path of physical disciplines (Western or Hatha yoga)
Jhana yoga
Path of knowledge
Karma yoga
Path of action
Bhakti yoga
Path of devotion
Yogis say that it is easier to calm a wild tiger than it is to quiet the mind, which
is like a drunken monkey that has been bitten by a scorpion. The problem is that
the mind is our vehicle for knowing the Self. If the mirror of the mind is disturbed,
it reflects the disturbance rather than the pure light within. The goal of
yogic practices is to make the mind absolutely calm and clear.
Words and language are imperfect to describe this exalted state Mind, intellect
and the senses cease functioning It is a state of eternal Bliss and eternal
Wisdom. All dualities vanish in toto All visible merge in the invisible or the
Unseen. The individual soul becomes that which he contemplates.21
Paths of Yoga
As mentioned before, there are four well-known yogic paths. Each one, however, is grounded in moral practice. Along with a deep desire to reach the goal of union with the divine or liberation, the jnanic thinker, the bahkti devotee, the karmic worker and the rajic practitioner must cultivate personal attributes such as being truthful, not harming others, not stealing, controlling one’s self, staying clean, being content, and maintaining discipline. With the help of such preliminaries, the follower of jnana yoga may be transformed into that (the divine) which he or she knows, the follower of the bahkti path may be drawn into a deep, loving relationship with his or her beloved deity, the follower of karma yoga may work with strong sense of duty, detached from the outcomes of his or her activities, and the follower of the raja postures, breathing, and meditative techniques may move from body through the mind to absorption into God (Samadhi).

39. Yogic practices The sacred sound of creation ‘Om’ The OM symbol,
representing the original
sound of creation, is
topped by the sun and
the moon, harmonized
opposites. To chant OM
is to commune with this
cosmic sound vibration.

40. Hindu practices Purification Pilgrimage Holy Days Asceticism Divali
Holi
Asceticism
Hindu holy days are based on a lunar calendar. Many of them are associated with local shrines and pilgrimage suites. Two very widely celebrated festivals are Divali (which is particularly devoted to Lakshima, the goddess of wealth and good fortune) and Holi (which recognizes the grain harvest, spring and the new year, and recalls the youthful pranks of Krishna).

41. Hindu Ethics and Morality
Karma
Our actions have consequences, good or bad
Very strong moral teaching
Code of Manu
describes the four basic goals that motivate humans: pleasure, gain, righteousness and liberation.
Although each goal has its rightful place, all but the last (liberation) will exhaust themselves. To move closer to liberation from the cycle of life and death, individuals must follow the highest principle (dharma) in themselves. They must hold the family sacred and commit themselves to their community with compassion and non-harmfulness.

42. 4 Concepts of Morality 4 Main reasons for all human actions:
CODE OF MANU
4 Main reasons for all human actions:
Dharma – to do what is right according to religious and moral principles, age, education, occupation, and social caste (varna) with different obligations depending on social class
Artha – acquisition of wealth to support your family and to make their lives comfortable
Kama – enjoyment of the physical pleasures that life has to offer
Moksha – aiming for liberation from the endless cycles of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) and achieving oneness with God

43. Hindu practices Cremation Chanting
Since only the soul survives death, most bodies are cremated, and the ashes are often scattered on sacred rivers
Chanting
Specified verbal formulas, sacred chants, (called mantras) and sacred actions were to be used by the priests to invoke the breath behind all of existence
The Hindus have many rituals (samskaras) for the various stages of life. Since it is only the soul that survives death, Hindu funerals typically entail cremation. The ashes and bones of the deceased are retrieved from the funeral pyre and usually scattered on some sacred waterways. Following a death, the immediate family is considered polluted from twelve days up to a year. Scriptures are read and food offerings made to the departed soul until the restrictions are lifted.
Over time elaborate fire sacrifice rituals were created, controlled by brahmins
(priests). Specified verbal formulas, sacred chants, and sacred actions were to be
used by the priests to invoke the breath behind all of existence. This universal breath
was later called Brahman, the Absolute, the Supreme Reality. The verbal formulas
were called mantras; their sound was believed to evoke the reality they named. The
language used was Sanskrit. It was considered a re-creation of the actual soundforms
of objects, actions, and qualities, as heard by ancient sages in deep meditation.
Purification is also essential to temple worship. Most Hindu worship is individual instead of communal. In either case, whether visiting the temple on one’s own or observing the daily priestly rites with others, the worshipper must purify himself or herself by cleansing the body with water from tanks placed outside the temple; for the worshipper not only sees the deity but is seen by the deity as well.
India is a place of pilgrimage. At times, the concentration of Hindu pilgrims—especially near Allahabad where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers meet—exceeds the number of Muslims who gather near Mecca. Sacred temples, birthplaces of Avatars, fords of rivers (which symbolize the crossing over from this world to the next), the Himalayas, Varanasi (formerly Benares, and said to the embodiment of Shiva), and the Ganges River (where devotees collect the sacred waters for later purification rites as well) are some of the many popular pilgrimage sites.
Whether on the move or not, some of the Hindus practice severe bodily mortifications. Ascetics fast, follow strict diets and sexual restraint, and engage in intense physical and mental exercises. Along with this is a tradition, followed by some, of renouncing one’s family and possession at old age and living a homeless, simple, wandering life of a holy man (sannyasin).

44. Caste System There are 4 castes;
Brahmans – priestly and intellectual caste
Kshatriyas – governing and military caste
Vaisya – merchant and agricultural caste
Sudras – the artisan and laboring caste
A non-caste is the untouchables whose primary duty is management of dead animals and people

45. Hindu Ethics and Morality
Caste system
Fought against by Gandhi
Not formally recognized by Indian Government
Still very prevalent
Karma means ‘activity’ or ‘action.’ Every action has an effect, and the law of karma suggests that what we do has unavoidable consequences, either good or bad. Our attachment to the consequences of our actions binds us to the cycle of reincarnation. The Laws of Manu (about 100 C.E.) described the four basic goals that motivate humans: pleasure, gain, righteousness and liberation. Although each goal has its rightful place, all but the last (liberation) will exhaust themselves. To move closer to liberation from the cycle of life and death, individuals must follow the highest principle (dharma) in themselves. They must hold the family sacred and commit themselves to their community with compassion and non-harmfulness.
Unfortunately, the law of karma has also been used as a philosophical foundation for the Hindu caste system. The ancient Vedic texts divided society into four groups: priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatriyas), merchants (Vaishyas), and craftspeople (Shudras). It has evolved into an inherited condition marked by hundreds of divisions within castes. Intermarriage among castes has been frowned upon, and its most notorious abuse has been the oppression of the ‘Untouchables’ who are often forced into degrading, impure jobs such as cleaning streets, cleaning sewers, and clearing away dead bodies. Although the caste system is now illegal, it is still very prevalent in India.

46. Nine Beliefs of Hinduism
In the divinity of the Vedas, the world’s most ancient scripture, and venerate the Agamas as equally revealed. These primordial hymns are God’s word and the bedrock of Sanatana Dharma, the eternal religion which has neither beginning nor end.
In a one, all-pervasive Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, both Creator and Unmanifest Reality.
That the universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and dissolution.
In karma, the law of cause and effect by which each individual creates his own destiny by his thoughts, words and deeds.

47. Nine Beliefs of Hinduism
That the soul reincarnates, evolving through many births until all karmas have been resolved, and moksha, spiritual knowledge and liberation from the cycle of rebirth, is attained. Not a single soul will be eternally deprived of this destiny.
That divine beings exist in unseen worlds and that temple worship, rituals, sacraments as well as personal devotionals create a communion with these devas and Gods.
That a spiritually awakened master, or satguru, is essential to know the Transcendent Absolute, as are personal discipline, good conduct, purification, pilgrimage, self-inquiry and meditation.
That all life is sacred, to be loved and revered, and therefore practice ahimsa, “noninjury.”
That no particular religion teaches the only way to salvation above all others, but that all genuine religious paths are facets of God’s Pure Love and Light, deserving tolerance and understanding.

48. Four Facts of Hinduism Karma
Karma is what the soul undergoes in one of two ways, according to whether its actions are virtuous or not; but both kinds subsist until the end of enjoyment in this world. -Svayambu Agama
Reincarnation
Through his past works he shall return once more to birth, entering whatever form his heart is set on. This mighty soul unborn grows not old, nor dies, for the soul is immortal and fearless. -Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

49. Four Facts of Hinduism Dharma
May noble wisdom come to us from all sides, undeceived, unhindered, overflowing, so that the Devas may always help us onward, unceasing is their care, our Guardians day by day. -Rig Veda
Worship
Offering of perfumed substances, flowers, incense, lamps and fresh fruit-these are the five elements of the traditional puja which culminates with offering of the lamps. -Kamika Agama

50. Another Indian Religion :
Jainism is one of the world's
oldest religions. Much of its
history is unknown.
Two main parts Ahimsa
(non-violence) and
Aparigtaha (self-control).
Jainism teaching remained predominantly in India

51. Jainism Not based on the Vedas Doesn’t acknowledge castes
Some say predate the Vedas
Doesn’t acknowledge castes
Approximately 6 million followers worldwide
From the word ‘jina’ or winner – one who has ‘won’ over the passions
Jainism
In the midst of a world of decline, as they see it, Jains are given great room for
hope. The jiva—the individual’s higher consciousness, or soul—can save itself by
discovering its own perfect, unchanging nature and thus transcend the miseries of
earthly life. This process may require many incarnations. Jains, like Hindus and
Buddhists, believe that we are reborn again and again until we finally free ourselves
from samsara, the wheel of birth and death and of life’s ups and downs.
The gradual process by which the soul learns to extricate itself from the lower
self and its attachments to the material world involves purifying one’s ethical life
until nothing remains but the purity of the jiva. In its true state, it is fully omniscient,
shining, potent, peaceful, self-contained, and blissful. One who has thus
brought forth the highest in his or her being is called a Jina (a “winner” over the
passions), from which the term Jain is derived. The Tirthankaras were Jinas who
helped others find their way, regenerating the community by teaching inspiring
spiritual principles.

52. Jain beliefs Reincarnation Karma Non-violence Non-attachment
Sees karma as ‘subtle matter’
Something to avoid accumulating
Non-violence
Non-attachment
Non-absolutism
Asceticism (especially among monks)
Vegetarianism
No personal deity
Self is maya, an illusion
Like Hindus and Buddhists, Jains believe that our actions influence the future
course of our current life, and of our lives to come. But in Jain belief, karma is
actually subtle matter—minute particles that we accumulate as we act and think.
Mahavira likened karma to coats of clay that weigh down the soul.
Jains are very careful to avoid accumulating karma. Three of the chief principles
to which they adapt their lives are ahimsa (non-violence), aparigraha (nonattachment),
and anekantwad (non-absolutism).
Characterized by asceticism (especially among monks); vegetarianism; no particular personal deity;
In Jainism, unlike Christianity and many Hindu cults, there is no such thing as a
heavenly father watching over us. To the contrary, love for a personal God would be
an attachment that could only bind Jainas more securely to the cycle of rebirth. It is
a thing that must be rooted out.13

53. Background of JAINISM
Mahavira (Great Hero) was the teacher for the current age and of Kshatriya clan like Buddha
Lived in the mid 6th century BC(E) and was contemporary of Buddha. Died ~527
Son of minor Raja and renounced life at 30.
Spent 12 years of meditation, silence, and extreme deprivation to achieve moksha
Taught for 30 years before his death
Last in the line of 24 teachers or Tirthankaras-ford-finders/makers, kevalins-single ones, jinas-conquerors

54. The Human Cycles
Universe without beginning or end – like Hinduism, but human progress is cyclical
Humans are happy, long-lived, and virtuous and do not need religion
Then humans look to elders for guidance and direction as things begin to deteriorate
Finally Tirthankaras must come to establish religion and help guide humanity away from growing evil

55. Tirthankaras
First Lord Rishabha who established social institutions like marriage, family, law, justice, government, arts of agriculture, crafts, reading, writing, & mathematics
22nd cousin of Lord Krishna who refused to marry because of the slaughter of so many animals for the wedding celebration – became an ascetic.
23rd lived ~ BC(E) was an extreme ascetic and great preacher
24th was Mahavira who is portrayed as sinless, omniscient, pre-existent, and descended from heaven

56. Split with the Religion
310 BC(E) ~12000 priests moved into southern India where they discarded all clothing for the duration of the 12 year famine
Upon returning the found 2 major changes that split religion
Loosening of requirements about nudity
Convening of council to establish canon of 45 books
Digambaras (sky clad) do not accept changes believe women can not reach highest heaven or lowest hell
Svetambaras (white clad) believe women are able to obtain liberation without being reborn male, also believe 19th Tirthankaras was female
Islam invaded India and required Digambaras to wear loin-clothes

57. Mahavira’s 5 Vows Prohibition against: Killing Lying Stealing
Sexual pleasures
Attachment to anything

58. Accumulating Karma
Karma – defined as subtle matter that we acquire as we think and act –there are 3 approaches which help limit accumulation
Ahimsa – principle of non-violence
Aparigraha – principle of non-attachment
Anekantwad – principle of relativism

59. Observations about Jain Beliefs
Best practiced as priests/priestess (full time for best results)
Universe is eternal and run by certain specific natural principles
Supernatural beings subject to same ignoble passions as humans
Transmigration is instantaneous
Kevala is the state of liberation and the person exists with boundless vision, infinite righteousness, perfect bliss, existence without form
Jains have high ethical standards
Tirthankaras are elevated above the human plane and as such are not available as helpers
Liberation from samsara is the result of personal effort
There are ~6,000,000 Jains
Jain scriptures consider all who practice Jain principles as Jains