1. Motivation Chapter 12 Motivation 4/15/2017
Prepared by Krista D. Forrest, Ph.D., and Michael Lee
These slides © 2004 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario.
Chapter 12
©1999 Prentice Hall

2. Motivation Defining motivation The hungry animal: Motives to eat
4/15/2017
Motivation
Defining motivation
The hungry animal: Motives to eat
The social animal: Motives to love
The erotic animal: Motives for sex
The competent animal: Motives to achieve
Motives, values, and well-being
©1999 Prentice Hall

3. Motivation
4/15/2017
Defining Motivation
A inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation.
Intrinsic motivation
The pursuit of activity for its own sake.
Extrinsic motivation
The pursuit of an activity for external rewards such as money or fame.
©1999 Prentice Hall

4. The Hungry Animal: Motives to Eat
Motivation
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The Hungry Animal: Motives to Eat
The genetics of weight
Culture, psychology, and weight
Weight and health: Body versus culture
©1999 Prentice Hall

5. Motivation
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The Genetics of Weight
Research suggests that heavy people are no more and no less emotionally disturbed than average weight people.
Heaviness is not always caused by overeating.
Set point
The genetically influenced weight range for an individual, maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves and metabolism.
Identical twins weigh and gain weight similarly.
The complexity of mechanisms governing appetite and weight explains why “appetite suppressing” drugs fail in the long run.
©1999 Prentice Hall

6. Motivation
4/15/2017
Body Weights of Twins
Identical twins are more similar in body weight than fraternal
Same whether raised together or apart
Genetic factors play a large role in body weight
Figure 8.4 from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Stunkard., A. J., Harris, J. R., Pedersen, J. L., & McClearn, G. E. (1990). The body-mass index of twins who have been reared apart. New England Journal of Medicine, 332,
©1999 Prentice Hall

7. Culture, Psychology, and Weight
Motivation
4/15/2017
Culture, Psychology, and Weight
The environment and obesity
Cultural attitudes
©1999 Prentice Hall

8. The Environment and Obesity
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Environment and Obesity
Environmental factors related to weight gain:
Increased abundance of low-cost, varied high fat meals.
The habit of eating high calorie food on the run instead of leisurely meals.
The rise in energy saving devices such as remote controls.
The speed and conveniences of driving rather than walking or biking.
The preference for watching television or videos instead of exercising.
©1999 Prentice Hall

9. Motivation
4/15/2017
Cultural Attitudes
In many cultures, where food is a rarer commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and affluence in men, sexual desirability in women.
While people of all ethnicities and social classes have been getting heavier, the cultural ideal for white women has been getting thinner.
The cultural ideal for men has also changed.
Muscles used to mean a working class, now muscular bodies symbolize affluence.
©1999 Prentice Hall

10. Motivation
4/15/2017
Cultural Attitudes
Although more Canadian men than women are overweight or obese, more Canadian women are currently dieting, even when their weight is in the healthy range.
Regardless of actual weight, research has shown that Canadian teenage girls wanted to lose weight, while most boys wanted to gain weight.
Cultural norms appear in the teens and persist into adulthood.
©1999 Prentice Hall

11. Weight and Health: Biology versus Culture
Motivation
4/15/2017
Weight and Health: Biology versus Culture
People from cultures that regard overweight as a sign of health and sexiness are more likely to be obese.
People from cultures emphasizing thinness are more likely to have eating disorders.
Many with eating disorders reflect an irrational terror of being “too fat.”
Bulimia
Anorexia nervosa
©1999 Prentice Hall

12. Bulimia and Anorexia Nervosa
Motivation
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Bulimia and Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (binges) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging).
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation.
©1999 Prentice Hall

13. Ideal Body Image Which image is ideal for your sex?
Motivation
4/15/2017
Ideal Body Image
Which image is ideal for your sex?
Which comes closest to your own body?
Figure 8.5 from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
©1999 Prentice Hall

14. Influences on Eating Disorders
Motivation
4/15/2017
Influences on Eating Disorders
Presence of extremely slim television stars.
Genes or set points which conflict with cultural standard.
Conflict between desire to achieve and perception of parent’s messages about a “woman’s place.”
Increase in male responsiveness to cultural expectations may be related to their desire to be more “manly.”
©1999 Prentice Hall

15. The Social Animal: Motives to Love
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Social Animal: Motives to Love
The psychology of love
The ingredients of love
Attachment theory of love
Gender, culture, and love
©1999 Prentice Hall

16. The Psychology of Love The need for affiliation Predictors of love
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Psychology of Love
The need for affiliation
The motive to associate with other people, by seeking friends, companionship, or love.
Predictors of love
Proximity
Choosing friends and lovers from the set of people who are closest to us.
Similarity
Choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and interests.
©1999 Prentice Hall

17. The Ingredients of Love
Motivation
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The Ingredients of Love
Sternberg’s Triangular theory of love
Passion
Euphoria and sexual excitement.
Intimacy
Being free to talk about things, feeling close to and understood by loved ones.
Commitment
Needing to be with the other person; being loyal.
Ideal love involves all three.
©1999 Prentice Hall

18. The Attachment Theory of Love
Motivation
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The Attachment Theory of Love
Like infants have attachment styles to their caregivers, adults have attachment styles to their partners.
Secure or rarely jealous or worried about being abandoned.
Avoidant or distrustful and avoids intimate attachments.
Anxious ambivalent or agitated and worried that partner will leave.
Adult style is related to infant style.
©1999 Prentice Hall

19. Distribution of attachment style
Motivation
4/15/2017
Distribution of attachment style
A representative survey of adults indicated:
Securely attached 33%
Avoidant 25%
Anxious 11%
©1999 Prentice Hall

20. Gender, Culture, and Love
Motivation
4/15/2017
Gender, Culture, and Love
Males and females respond similarly to:
Love at first sight
Passionate love
Companionate love
Unrequited love
Being the break-up recipient
©1999 Prentice Hall

21. Gender, Culture, and Love
Motivation
4/15/2017
Gender, Culture, and Love
Men and women different in
How they express love
Men-doing; women-saying.
How they define intimacy
Men-hanging out; women-sharing feelings.
Men and women used to have different goals in choices of partners
Men-more romantic; Women-more pragmatic.
As more women have become economically self-sufficient, differences have decreased.
©1999 Prentice Hall

22. Sex Differences in Marriage Age
Motivation
4/15/2017
Sex Differences in Marriage Age
Men tend to marry younger women
This age difference increases with man’s age
Women tend to marry men who are slightly older
This changes little with age
Figure 8.6 from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Kenrick, D. T., & Keefe, R. C. (1992). Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies. behavioural and Brain Sciences, 15,
Based on U.S. marriage statistics for the 1980’s
©1999 Prentice Hall

23. The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex
The Biology of Desire
The Psychology of Desire
The Culture of Desire
The Riddle of Sexual Orientation
©1999 Prentice Hall

24. The Biology of Desire Hormones and sexual response Arousal and orgasm
Motivation
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The Biology of Desire
Hormones and sexual response
Arousal and orgasm
©1999 Prentice Hall

25. Hormones and Sexual Response
Motivation
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Hormones and Sexual Response
Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in both sexes.
Documentation included several studies of men and women.
However, this is not a simple relationship.
Sexual behaviour also increases testosterone.
Psychological factors are usually more important than hormones.
Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated don’t always lose sexual desires.
©1999 Prentice Hall

26. Motivation
4/15/2017
Arousal and Orgasm
Freud differentiated between “immature” clitoral orgasms and “mature” vaginal orgasms in women.
Kinsey suggested that males and females had similar orgasms but that females were less sexual.
Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s capacity for sexual responses surpassed men’s.
Didn’t examine differences based on developmental, experiential or cultural factors.
©1999 Prentice Hall

27. Arousal and Orgasm What we know now
Motivation
4/15/2017
Arousal and Orgasm
What we know now
Physiological responses don’t always correlate with subjective experiences.
Psychologists still disagree on whether there are sex differences in sex drive.
Social psychologists suggest that males sexual behaviour is more biologically determined while females sexual desires and responsiveness are more affected by circumstances, the specific relationship and cultural norms.
©1999 Prentice Hall

28. The Sexual-Response Cycle
Motivation
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The Sexual-Response Cycle
Figure 8.7 from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Source:
Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. Boston: Little, Brown.
©1999 Prentice Hall

29. The Psychology of Desire
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Psychology of Desire
Motives for sex include:
Enhancement
Intimacy
Coping
Self-Affirmation
Partner Approval
Peer Approval
©1999 Prentice Hall

30. Sexual Coercion and Rape
Motivation
4/15/2017
Sexual Coercion and Rape
Persistent gender differences occur in perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual coercion.
29% of female undergraduates reported having experienced at least one incident of sexual assault.
Only 6% of all sexual assaults in Canada are reported to police, due possibly to the fact that most women know their male attackers.
Men are far more likely than women to admit coercing a partner into sex - using alcohol, drugs, threats, or actual physical force.
©1999 Prentice Hall

31. Possible Motivations for Rape
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Possible Motivations for Rape
Peer approval
General anger
Revenge
The desire to dominate
Anger at women or the world
©1999 Prentice Hall

32. The Culture of Desire Sexual Scripts
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Culture of Desire
Sexual Scripts
Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behaviour for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s age, culture, and gender.
©1999 Prentice Hall

33. The Riddle of Sexual Orientation
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Riddle of Sexual Orientation
Factors which do not explain homosexuality:
A smothering mother.
An absent father.
Emotional problems.
Same sex play in childhood and adolescence.
Parental practices.
Role models.
Seduction by an older adult.
©1999 Prentice Hall

34. Biological Explanations for Homosexuality
Motivation
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Biological Explanations for Homosexuality
Studies demonstrating brain differences have not been replicated.
Prenatal exposure to androgens.
May be moderately heritable.
©1999 Prentice Hall

35. Sexual Orientation: Genetic Links
Motivation
4/15/2017
Sexual Orientation: Genetic Links
Identical twins have highest concordance (similarity) rates for sexual orientation
Same pattern for males and females
This suggests some genetic link in sexual orientation
Figure 8.8 from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Sources:
Bailly, J. M., & Pillard, R. C. (1991). A genetic study of male sexual orientation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48,
Bailly, J. M., Pillard, R. C., Neale, M. C., & Agyei, Y. (1993). Heritable factors influence sexual orientation in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50,
©1999 Prentice Hall

36. Difficulty in finding origin of homosexuality
Motivation
4/15/2017
Difficulty in finding origin of homosexuality
Sexual identity and behaviour are different and can occur in different combinations.
Some are sexually attracted to both men and women.
Some are heterosexual in behaviour but have homosexual fantasies.
Sexual behaviours can differ in different cultures.
©1999 Prentice Hall

37. The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve
The Effects of Motivation on Work
The Effects of Work on Motivation
©1999 Prentice Hall

38. The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve
Need for achievement
A learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area.
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a projective test that asks people to invent stories about ambiguous pictures which are then scored for unconscious motives such as the need for achievement, power, or affiliation.
©1999 Prentice Hall

39. The Importance of Goals
Motivation
4/15/2017
The Importance of Goals
Goals improve motivation when:
The goal is specific
The goal is challenging but achievable
The goal is framed in terms of approach goals instead of avoidance goals
Approach goals are framed as getting what is wanted.
Avoidance goals are framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences.
©1999 Prentice Hall

40. Types of Goals Performance Goals Mastery (Learning) Goals
Motivation
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Types of Goals
Performance Goals
Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favourably, and avoiding criticism.
Mastery (Learning) Goals
Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills.
©1999 Prentice Hall

41. Expectations and Self efficacy
Motivation
4/15/2017
Expectations and Self efficacy
Self-fulfilling prophecy
A expectation that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about.
Self-Efficacy
A person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals.
©1999 Prentice Hall

42. The Effects of Work on Motivation
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The Effects of Work on Motivation
Working conditions
Opportunities to achieve
©1999 Prentice Hall

43. Motivation
4/15/2017
Working Conditions
Working conditions that increase job involvement, motivation, and satisfaction include:
Work provides a sense of meaningfulness.
Employees have control over part of work.
Tasks are varied.
Company maintains clear and consistent rules.
Employees have supportive relationships with superiors and co-workers.
Employees receive useful feedback.
Company offers opportunities for growth.
©1999 Prentice Hall

44. Opportunities to Achieve
Motivation
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Opportunities to Achieve
When person lacks fair chance to make it, he or she may be less than successful.
©1999 Prentice Hall

45. Motives, Values and Well-Being
Motivation
4/15/2017
Motives, Values and Well-Being
Motivational conflicts
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Universal psychological needs
©1999 Prentice Hall

46. Motivational Conflicts
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Motivational Conflicts
Approach-Approach Conflict
Equally attracted to two activities or goals.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Choosing between the “lesser of the evils.”
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
One activity or goal has both positive and negative elements.
©1999 Prentice Hall

47. Maslow's Pyramid of Needs
Motivation
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Maslow's Pyramid of Needs
Needs arranged in a hierarchy
Low-level needs must be met before trying to satisfy higher-level needs
Esteem: Status, respect, power
Self-actualization: Fulfill one’s potential
Figure 8.01 from:
Kassin, S. (1998). Psychology, second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
©1999 Prentice Hall

48. Universal Psychological Needs
Motivation
4/15/2017
Universal Psychological Needs
Autonomy
Feeling that choices are based on true interests and values.
Competence
Feeling able to master hard challenges.
Relatedness
Feeling close to others who are important to you.
Self-esteem
Self-respect.
©1999 Prentice Hall

49. Universal Psychological Needs
Motivation
4/15/2017
Universal Psychological Needs
©1999 Prentice Hall