1. SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA FROM PRE-HISTORY TO 1500 C.E.

2. PRE-HISTORIC AFRICA Regions in Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa vs. Northern Africa (inc. Nile Valley)
The Sahara is the greatest physical and cultural barrier
North settled early by Berbers, Hamites (Caucasian groups)
Sub-Saharan Africa has larger regions with many micro regions
West Africa Forest, Sahel called Sudan, Central Africa, East Africa, South Africa
Each region defined by physical geography and vegetation; many micro cultures
North and East Africa saw first “African” civilizations
The Nile River: Pharaonic Egypt; Kush-Meroe (often called Nubia)
The Ethiopian Highlands: Axum (Aksum) or Ethiopia
North Africa: Carthaginian Empire, Roman and Greek civilizations
The Sudan
Sudanic region was sahel or plains stretching across Africa south of Sahara
9000 B.C.E. domestication of cattle; cultivation of sorghum, cotton
Became home to most Sub-Saharan civilizations
Small states based on tribes, clans developed
Religion: polytheism, shamanism, placation of spirits, divination
Climatic Change
Prior to 5000 CE Sahara one large inland sea surrounded by plains
5000 B.C.E. development of Sahara Desert as desertification increased
Increasing desertification forced mass popular migration to water
Nile shifts to east; formation of large lakes in Central Africa that feed Nile

3. REGIONS IN AFRICA

4. AFRICAN CLIMATE ZONES

5. ANCIENT MAP OF AFRICA

6. THE BANTU The Bantu peoples Bantu agriculture and herding
Originated in the region around modern Nigeria/Cameroon
Influenced by Nok iron making, herding, agriculture
Population pressure drove migrations, 2000 BCE – 700 BCE
Two major movements: to south and to east and then south
Languages split into about 500 distinct but related tongues
Bantu agriculture and herding
Early Bantu relied on agriculture – slash-burn, shifting
Pastoralists, semi-nomadic due to agriculture, cattle
Iron metallurgy
Iron appeared during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E.
Iron made agriculture more productive
Expanded divisions of labor, specialization in Bantu societies
Population Pressures
Iron technologies produced population upsurge
Large populations forced migration of Bantu

7. THE BANTU MIGRATION The Bantu Migration Bananas Population growth
Population pressure led to migration, c B.C.E.
Movement to South, along Southeast and Southwest coasts
Languages differentiated into about 500 distinct but related tongues
Occupied most of sub-Saharan (except West) Africa by 1000 C.E.
Split into groups as they migrated: Eastern, Central, Southern
Bantu spread iron, herding technologies as they moved
Bananas
Between 300/500 C.E., Malay seafarers reached Africa
Settled in Madagascar, visited East African coast
Brought with them pigs, taro, and banana cultivation
Bananas became well-established in Africa by 500 C.E.
Bantu learned to cultivate bananas from Malagasy
Bananas caused second population spurt, migration surge
Reached South Africa in 16th century CE
Population growth
3.5 million people by 400 B.C.E.
11 million by the beginning of the millennium
17 million by 800 C.E.
22 million by 1000 C.E.

8. MAP OF THE BANTU MIGRATIONS

9. BANTU LANGUAGES

10. AFRICAN LANGUAGE FAMILIES

11. BANTU POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
Stateless societies
Early Bantu societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
Societies governed through family and kinship groups
Village council, consisted of male family heads
Chief of a village was from the most prominent family heads
A group of villages constituted a district
Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs
Chiefdoms
Population growth strained resources, increased conflict
Some communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E.
Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority
Some chiefs conquered their neighbors
Kingdom of Kongo
Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E.
Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.
One of the principalities conquered neighbors, built kingdom of Kongo
Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system
Provided effective organization until the mid-17th century

12. SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
Diversity of African societies in Sub-Saharan Africa
Complex societies developed into kingdoms, empires, and city-states
Coexisted with small states and stateless societies
Lineages consisted of all members descended from a common ancestor
Kinship groups of stateless societies
Extended families and clans as social and economic organizations
Communities claimed rights to land, no private property
Village council allocated land to clan members
Sex and gender relations
Men undertook heavy labor, herding,
Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores, farming
Men monopolized public authority but women could be leaders
Women enjoyed high honor as the source of life
Many societies were matrilineal; aristocratic women influenced public affairs
Women merchants commonly traded at markets
Sometimes women organized all-female military units
Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa
Age grades
Publicly recognized "age grades" or "age sets"
Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age grades
Coming of age ceremonies and secret societies restricted by age, gender

13. ANCIENT EGYPT

14. MAP OF ANCIENT KUSH

15. FIRST AFRICAN CIVILIZATIONS
Egyptian History, c BCE to 525 BCE
Pre-history dominated by small city-states along Nile
Old Kingdom
Menes- Narmer united Upper/Lower Egypt
Pyramid building era; pharaohs considered divine
Middle Kingdom
2nd Illness saw Semitic invasion: Hyksos
New Kingdom saw rise of empire
3rd Illness saw invasions by Kush, Assyrians, Sea Peoples
Eventually ruled by Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines
Kush in Upper Nile assimilates Egyptian culture
Ethnically were Black Africans
Adopted many of Egyptian practices: religion, architecture
Ruled Egypt as 26th Dynasty
Famous for iron, gold trade
Remained independent until Muslim conquests

16. NILE SOCIETIES Urban elites (2%) ruled over rural masses
Social Classes
Pharaoh (ruler and his immediate family)
Officials (Advisors, generals, soldiers, priests)
Merchants and artisans
Peasants
Slaves
Patriarchal societies with a twist
Women were occasionally rulers
Women had rights, could own lands
Were “less” than males but not oppressed

17. RELIGIONS OF THE NILE Polytheism Ahkenaton and Monotheism
Extremely complex pantheon of gods
Deification of nature
Extremely powerful, influential priesthood with great wealth
Conflict of good, evil
Humans judged for their actions
Cult of Osiris
Strong belief in afterlife, accountability for actions
Mummification was but one aspect of this
Regenerative cycle of Osiris/Ra-Re/Horus
Ahkenaton and Monotheism
Amenhotep believed there was only one God
Ended polytheism, opposed by priests; was assassinated
Nubian Beliefs
Adopted many Egyptian beliefs
Major focus on the sun and moon

18. WRITING Early Nile Writing Education Sub-Saharan Writing
Hieroglyphics (Pictographs)
Merotic Writing in Nubia
Ge’ez Writing in Axum
Education
Scribes had influence
Often attached to court or temples
Services rented out
Scribes could advance socially
Sub-Saharan Writing
Lacked alphabet, books
Lack due to termites, lack of durable medium
Developed oral traditional, tribal memories
West African griots
Memorized history by mneumonic devices
Kept all records for tribes, rulers
Islam brought first alphabet to Sub-Saharan Africa

19. ECONOMICS OF NILE Economic Specialization and Trade Transportation
Bronze Age arose around 17th century B.C.E.
Iron Age begins around 1,000 B.C.
Transportation
Largely waterborne; little need for roads
Out of Nile Valley, camels and horses were common
Trade
Egypt was largely self-sufficient, autarkic
Net exporter of grains, foodstuffs, luxuries, paper, medicines
Most trade was based on luxury products
Papyrus, paper, medicines, herbs, finished products especially silver
Imports tended to be wood, gold, finished products
Kush-Meroe specialized in iron, gold workings
Trade Routes
Up Nile to Kush-Meroe
Across Sinai to Fertile Cresent
Down Red Sea to East Africa, Southern Arabia
Across Mediterranean to Greece, Phoenicia
Little contact with interior of Africa                            

20. THE NOK CULTURE Discovered 1928 in Northern Nigeria
Was it a civilization or advanced culture?
Flourished 900 BCE to 200 CE on Niger-Benue River
Clearly first Sub-Saharan civilization/culture
Precursor of Bantu, West African forest peoples
Knowledge is based on archeology
Iron makers and sculptors
Animals and humans made from fired clay
Figures of animals, peoples including leaders
Seem to have been pastoralists, farmers
Could smelt iron
Have found iron tools, weapons; probably also used wood
Seemed to have skipped copper, bronze ages
Indigenous or borrowed from North Africa, Nile River?

21. GHANA: 1ST SUB-SAHARAN CIVILIZATION
Camels
Camels came to Egypt from Arabia, 7th century B.C.E.
Romans introduced them to North Africa, patrolled desert
After 500 C.E. camels replaced horses, donkeys as transport animals
Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the Sahara
Islamic merchants crossed the desert to trade in West Africa
Established relations with sub-Saharan West Africa by 8th century
The kingdom of Ghana
Kings maintained a large army of two hundred thousand warriors
A principal state of west Africa, not related to modern state of Ghana
Became the most important commercial site in west Africa
Controlled gold mines, exchanged it with nomads for salt
Provided gold, ivory, and slaves
Wanted horses, cloth, manufactured goods
Became Islamic after its arrival.
Koumbi-Saleh
Capital city
Thriving commercial center

22. ARRIVAL OF ISLAM IN AFRICA
North Africa
Arab armies conquered region by early 8th Century; pushed up Nile
Mass conversions of local inhabitants due to tax incentives
West Africa
Introduced by Trans-Saharan Trade route
Merchants were greatest contact with Islam
Local rulers, elites converted by 10th century
Ghana most powerful at time of introduction
Gave elites control of trade, many benefits
Allowed people to observe traditional beliefs
Nomadic Berbers in North Africa
Berbers and Arabs were bitter rivals
Arabs settled coastlands, cities
Berbers lived in deserts, mountains
Berbers became puritanical Muslim, Shia
Berber fanatics invaded Ghana, Morocco
Ghana weakened, fell 10th century CE
Elite religion vs. common practices
Most people remained polytheists especially outside of cities, towns
Produced syncretic blend such as accommodation of African gender norms
After conversion by elites, old beliefs remained; part of inherited traditions
Religion introduced writing, literary traditions

23. KINGDOM OF MALI Mandike Peoples Ghana was established by Mandika
After fall of Ghana, Mandika established many small states
Most people were not Muslims but merchants were
Sundiata
After Ghana dissolved, political leadership shifted to Mali empire, a Mandika state
The lion prince was immortalized in the book the Sundiata (reigned ) built the Mali empire
Ruling elites, families converted to Islam after his death
The Mali empire and trade
Controlled gold, salt; taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa
Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa
Besides Niani, many prosperous cities on caravan routes
Mansa Musa
Sundiata's grand nephew, reigned from 1312 to 1337 –Peak of power
Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in
Gargantuan caravan of thousand soldiers and attendants
Gold devalued 25% in Cairo during his visit
Mansa Musa and Islam
Upon return to Mali, built mosques
Sent students to study with Islamic scholars in North Africa
Established Islamic schools in Mali
The decline of Mali
Factions crippled the central government
Rise of province of Gao as rival to Mali
Military pressures from neighboring kingdoms, desert nomads

24. SONGHAI EMPIRE Origins Rise Zenith Fall
Sorko fishermen of Niger became merchants
Joined Gao state (part of Malian Empire)
Mali could never collect taxes from Gao
Rise
Sonni Ali the Great build cavalry, war fleet
Disputed Mali, conquer Timbuktu
Anti-Muslim: saw them as a threat
Zenith
Askia Muhammad seized power after Sonni’s death
Devout Muslim, promoted Islam; launched jihads
Visited Cairo, Mecca; promoted Songhai to Muslims
Declared Caliph of the Sudan
Built centralized state using Muslim jurists as advisors
Tradition and Trade
Maintained tribal rituals of sacred drum, sacred fire, dress
Privileged caste craftsmen; slaves important in agriculture
Traded kola nuts, gold, slaves for horses, salt, luxuries, finished goods
Fall
Civil war erupted in 16th century
Demographic Changes
Drought, desertification hurt economy
Diseases spread
Moroccan Empire invades and destroys state in order to control gold trade

25. KANEM-BORNU Origins Islam and Trade A Change
Situated north east of Lake Chad.
In 11th century, Sefawa dynasty was established
Shift in lifestyle
From entirely nomadic to pastoralist way of life with agriculture
State became more centralized with capital at Njimi; maintained large cavalry
Islam and Trade
Kanem converted to Islam under Hu or Hawwa ( ).
Faith was not widely embraced until the 13th century.
Muslim traders played a role in bringing Islam to Kanem
Wealth of Kanem derived from ability of rulers to control trade
Main exports were ostrich feathers, slaves and ivory; imported horses, luxuries
Exports were crucial to their power, ability to dominate neighbors
A Change
Combination of overgrazing, dynastic uncertainties, attacks from neighbors
Rulers of Kanem to move to Borno, state now referred to as Kanem-Borno
New contacts with Hausa of Nigeria; capital becomes center of knowledge, trade
Army modernized by trade with Muslim, Turks: acquired firearms
Decline was long, gradual and peaceful: fell in the 19th century

26. SLAVERY Slavery in Africa Slave trading
Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals
Kept for local use or sold in slave markets
Often used as domestic laborers especially agricultural workers
Generally not a social stigma attached
Slaves could receive freedom, become part of family, tribe
Children born to slaves were not slaves
Slave trading
Slave trade increased after the 11th century CE
Primary markets
Across Sahara to North Africa and Egypt and ultimately Arabia
Out of East Africa to Arabia and Middle East
In some years, 10 to 12 thousand slaves shipped out of Africa
Males preferred, could also act as carriers of trade goods
10 million slaves transported by Islamic trade between 750/1500
Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe
Original slaves preferred in Muslim world were Caucasian Slavs
Word “slave” comes from Slav
Slave raids against smaller states, stateless societies
Muslims could not be used as slaves (Quran) yet often ignored

27. EARLY AFRICAN RELIGION
Creator god
Recognized by almost all African peoples
Created the earth and humankind, source of world order
Lesser gods and spirits
Often associated with natural features, forces in world
Participated actively in the workings of the world
Believed in ancestors' souls influencing material world
Diviners
Mediated between humanity and supernatural beings
Called shamans and inappropriately “witch doctors”
Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune
Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems
African religion was not theological, but practical
Religion to placate the gods, ask for assistance, cures, fertility
Public celebrations inc. dancing, singing formed community
Genders honored different deities, had separate ceremonies

28. EARLY EAST AFRICAN HISTORY
Early visitors to east Africa
Egyptians visited, traded with area
Famous expedition of Hatshepshut to Punt
Indian, Persian visited after 500 B.C.E.
Greeks, Romans called area Azania
Malays established colonies on Madagascar
Kingdom of Axum (Aksum)
Sabeans of Yemen created Axum
Arose in highlands of Ethiopia
Trading state across Bab el Mandeb straits
Tribute empire on land; trade gold, frankincense, myrrh, food, ivory
Built stone structures, issued own coins
Eventually became Monophysite Christian
King Ezana converted and court followed in early 4th century
Developed Ge’ez language, writing in association with Christianity
Maintained strong contacts with Egypt
Traded with Romans, Byzantines, Persians, Indians, Arabs
By 2nd century: Bantus populated much of East Africa
By 7th century: Arab merchants begin to visit
By 8th century: Muslim armies, merchants push up Nile

29. THE SWAHILI CITY-STATES
Intermarriage of the Bantu and the Arab produced Swahili
An Arabic term, meaning "coasters"
Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
Swahili is a Bantu language mixed with Arabic
The Swahili city-states
Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
Developed into city-states ruled by kings, 11th-12th centuries
Controlled trade from interior: slaves, gold, ivory, spices
Exchanged goods for finished goods, cloths, dyes, luxuries
Craftsmen, artisans, clerks were Muslims
Slaves used for domestic, agriculture
Zanzibar clove plantations needed slaves
Kilwa
One of the busiest city-states
Multistory stone buildings, mosques, schools
Issued copper coins from the 13th century
By 15th century, exported ton of gold per year
Merchants from India, China, Arabia visited
Islam in East Africa
Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants
Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim rulers

30. ZIMBABWE South Central Africa Zimbabwe Wooded and grass savannahs
Rich in minerals especially copper, gold
Bantu herders, ironsmiths found it wonderful
Zimbabwe
A powerful kingdom of Central Africa arose in 13th century
From 5th centuries C.E. built wooden residences known as zimbabwe
By the 9th century began to build stone zimbabwe
Magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe, the 12th century
18,000 people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late 15th century
Kings and wealth
Organized flow of gold, ivory
Trade include slaves
Counted wealth in cattle, too
Traded with Swahili city-states

31. CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA
Early Christianity in North Africa
Christianity reached Africa during 1st century C.E.
St. Mark converted Egypt, spread up Nile
Romans introduced faith to North Africa
North Africa was home to many heresies
Arianism = Jesus was human
Monophysites = Jesus had one nature
Donatists = Apostate Christians could not return
Vandal German settlers were Arian Christians
Byzantine conquest returned north to Catholics
Region had no influence on sub-Saharan African
Monophysite Christianity along the Nile
Believed Christ had one nature, largely divine
Persecuted; declared heresy by Chalcedon
The Christian kingdoms of Nubia and Axum
1st Christian kingdom, 4th century C.E.,
Nubians of Kush also became Christian
Both adopted Monophysite form of Christianity
Ethiopian and Nubian Christianity
Had little contact with Christians of other lands
Shared basic Christian theology/rituals, kept African points
Isolated, attacked by Islam

32. MOVEMENT IN AFRICAN HISTORY

33. ECONOMIC REGIONS OF AFRICA

34. HISTORIC AFRICA IN REVIEW