1. Wilhelm Wundt Chapter 4: (1832 – 1920)
Kant – said a science of psychology was impossible because
you could not measure aspects of the mind in a mathematical manner
“because it is not possible to isolate different thoughts”
Only way to examine phenomena was thru introspection, but observation of the phenomenon will change what you are trying to study
Wundt had a different opinion
Wundt was very interested in Bissel’s idea of errors of measurement,
it seems that part of the problem there had been which thing a person chose to concentrate on first, looking at the star or looking at the grid lines
So W thought it might be possible to form laws about that inner experience, or more specifically, that the external world could influence the inner world in a predicable manner
when he was 29, about the same time the civil war was starting in the US, he created a device in which he could both see (pendulum swinging) and hear (bell) the passage of time on a clock
After experimenting on himself, he decided that he could only attend to one perception at a time;
i.e., it was impossible to focus on both things at once
If we think we are perceiving several things at once, they are just happening too quickly for us to separate them
Importance: he found a way to measure the mind, in a way that was not purely referring to just the physical mechanisms of the sensory systems (thought as we normally think about it was involved)
Wundt would have never thought multi-tasking was possible

2. The Founding of Psychology
Why is Wundt called the
“father of psychology”?
Wundt actively promoted the field of psychology
Fechner had already measured sensation 15 years ago, but he is not called the father of psychology
Fechner was the originator of psychology, but Wundt the father of psychology
You can think of the difference as the architect (F) vs. the builder (W)
Why is Wundt called the “father of psychology”?
Wundt actively promoted the field of psychology – it was a deliberate action
How did he do this?

3. Wundt’s Firsts…
laboratory (became model for psychology laboratories everywhere)
trained a large number of the first generation of psychologists
journal in experimental psychology
college class
textbook
Wundt’s firsts:
laboratory (became model for psychology laboratories everywhere)
(alto W thought experimentation very important, he only spent 5-10 min a day there, apparantly didn’t like it much himself)
In his lab studies sensation/perception, attention, feeling, reaction, and association
trained first generation of psychologists
journal in experimental psychology
textbook
college class
By doing all of these things, W was able to consolidate previous ideas, organized into a new format, which made in accessible to people
And then he promoted/sold these ideas to other scientists
F on the other hand, had no intention of founding a new science; he was just trying to understand how the body and mind interact on a physical level
W never tries to say that he created all of the ideas he presented; he was just trying to organize them in some coherent fashion
You could say that the world was ready for psychology at the time (naturalistic)
Altho Wundt was particularly good at promoting (personalistic)

4. The Founding of Psychology
Wundt’s Written Works
First to use term “experimental psychology”
Offered “proper” methods for psychology
Six editions of textbook
Discussed problems that were the focus of psychology research for years
Examples: reaction time and psychophysics
Wundt’s Written Works
First to use term “experimental psychology”
Offered “proper” methods for psychology (ones adapted from physiology)
Six editions of textbook (which is important b/c someone has to synthesize/summarize/gather new ideas and promote this creation)
Discussed problems that were the focus of psychology research for years
Examples: reaction time and psychophysics, attention
Note: hard to summarize his work b/c there was so much of it (2 new pages a day)
And b/c he tended to write about a lot of topics, moved on to new ideas and changed old ones constantly
James said Wundt’s works were like a worm, hard to kill
Founding means:
Founding is deliberate and intentional
Founding is different from making outstanding scientific contributions
Founding requires integration of prior knowledge
Founding involves promotion of the newly integrated material, you have to talk people into accepting the new ideas, sort of like the whole thing that went along with convincing people that cell phones would be useful
Wundt did all of the above plus promoted systematic experimentation as the essential method of psychology
W used new terms, summarized old research, decided what was acceptable to do research on, and what methods were okay,
Encouraged psych to break from philosophy

5. Review of Zeitgeist Mechanism Reductionism Determinism Empiricism
Mechanism: everything is a machine
Reductionism: find parts to understand function
Determinism: no free will, every action has a cause, nothing happens without a reason
Empiricism: experimentation
As we go through this chapter, pay attention and try to figure out where these concepts show up in Wundt’s work and thinking

6. Review of Zeitgeist Empiricism:
Basic question: How does the mind learn?
Before 17th c.
Authorities – Aristotle
Dogma – Church
After Descartes (and acceptance of empiricism)
experimentation
observation
Empiricism:
Particularly important basic question: How does the mind learn?
Before 17th c.
Authorities – Aristotle
Dogma – Church
Ex. why is person acting crazy?
Various ideas:
babylonians, possession by demon
hebrew, punishment for sin
greek, disordered thoughts
After Descartes (and acceptance of empiricism)
experimentation
observation

7. Wundt’s life A poor student, always disliked school
Did not get along with classmates, ridiculed by teachers
Original goal:
Get an MD – work in science and make a living
Disliked medicine, switched to physiology
Student of Johannes Müller
Lab assistant to Helmholtz
While working in physiology, conceived of independent, experimental science of psychology
Professor of philosophy at Leipzig: 1875 – 1920
In family had a lot of famous, prestigious scholars in almost every field
Wundt did not seem to be holding up tradition
A poor student, always disliked school
goal: Get an MD – work in science and make a living
Did not get along with classmates, ridiculed by teachers
Really only started getting better when he returned after one year at med school and discovered his mother/family barely making it (father dead)
Original Disliked clinical practice, but liked science classes he took, so switched to physiology
Student of Johannes Müller
Lab assistant to Helmholtz
While working in physiology, conceived of independent, experimental science of psychology
Professor of philosophy at Leipzig: 1875 – 1920
Privately unassuming, but thought of himself as ultimate authority in role as professor
Williams james said: he isn’t a genius, he’s a professor – a being whose duty is to know everything, and to have his own opinion about everything connected to his specialty”
Would start every year with a list of research assignments, then assign research to students randomly, had sole authority about whether work was good enough

8. Wundt’s New Psychology
Divided psychology into two parts:
experimental
social
He argued that higher mental processes:
Cannot be studied experimentally
Are conditioned by language and culture
Can be studied using (“unscientific”) methods of sociology and anthropology
Okay, so what was this new psychology anyhow?
Divided psychology into two parts:
experimental – simple mental functions, like sensation/perception – had to be studied with lab methods; ex. reaction times could shown how long it took someone to perceive a stimulus
social (development of humans as shown in language, art, myths, customs, laws; in other words, social forces can influence our later cognitive processes, including learning/memory/higher mental processes)
He argued that higher mental processes (learning, memory, etc)
Cannot be studied experimentally
Because they are conditioned by language and culture – things which W did not think could be systematically controlled for a good experiment
Can be studied using (“unscientific”) methods of sociology and anthropology (an idea which is soon shown not to be true)
His experimental psychology was very influential
Altho he spent 10 yrs on this topic and wrote a 10 vol series on it, cultural psychology did not have much of an impact at the time, perhaps because another form of psychology was forming in US ( ) when W was developing and writing about his ideas on cultural psychology, and they didn’t see the need to pay attention to what happened outside US (main stream psychology had moved on to other things)

9. Wundt’s New Psychology
Subject matter of psychology:
consciousness
Consciousness made of many parts or elements
periodic table of the mind
Subject matter of psychology: consciousness (by which he meant “inner experience”)
Consciousness made of many parts or elements (reductionism)
periodic table of the mind
What exactly are these elements?
Two types…

10. Wundt’s New Psychology
Sensations
Stimulation of a sense organ leads to impulses that reach the brain
Classified by
intensity
duration
sense modality
Sensations (other was Feelings)
Stimulation of a sense organ leads to impulses that reach the brain
Examples: sounds, lights, colors (all immediate experiences)
Classified by
intensity, - how strong stimulus was
duration, - how long stimulus lasted
sense modality – what senses needed to detect stimulus

11. Wundt’s New Psychology
Sensations: Example of an experiment
Dropping ball
When ball dropped, it would make a sound,
Listener had two tasks
Press a button when sound 1st noticed (motor response), usually took 1/10 of a sec
Press a button when aware of perception of sound, usually took 2/10 of a sec (intensity, duration, sense modality)
There were differences in what each experience “felt” like
How is this different from what other physiologists were doing?
others only looked at observable behavior, W wanted to look at internal reactions as well

12. Wundt’s New Psychology
Feelings
Subjective reaction to stimuli
Occur with sensations, but do not arise directly from a sense organ
Emotions = compounds of feeling elements
Tridimensional theory of feelings
Pleasure/displeasure continuum
Tension/relaxation
Excitement/depression
Second type of element
Feelings
Subjective reaction to stimuli
Occur with sensations, but do not arise directly from a sense organ
Note: feelings are not emotions, they are more elementary than this
Emotions = compounds of feeling elements, so if you could find feelings, you could get to “elements” of the emotion
Tridimensional theory of feelings
Pleasure/displeasure continuum – how pleasant or agreeable a sensation was (certain rhythms, rates of speed)
Tension/relaxation – anticipation of a sensation that will come (sound), and relief after sensation has occurred
Excitement/depression – feelings of slight happiness with faster sounds, depression with slow sounds

13. Wundt’s New Psychology
Feelings: Example of an experiment
Listening to a metronome
Would vary speed of metronome, listeners examine sensations, report conscious reactions
Tridimensional theory of feelings
Pleasure/displeasure continuum – how pleasant or agreeable a sensation was (certain rhythms, rates of speed)
Tension/relaxation – anticipation of a sensation that will come (sound), and relief after sensation has occurred
Excitement/depression – feelings of slight happiness with faster sounds, depression with slow sounds

14. Wundt’s three goals for psychology
Break conscious processes into their basic elements
Discover how these elements are organized
Determine the laws of connection governing the organization of the elements
W’s three goals:
Break conscious processes into their basic elements
Discover how these elements are organized
Determine the laws of connection governing the organization of the elements

15. Wundt’s New Psychology
Immediate experience:
consist of sensations or feelings
unbiased by interpretation
Mediate experience:
influenced by past experience
“interpretations” of meaning of sensations
Wundt’s conclusion:
Only immediate experiences should be studied
Immediate experience: unbiased by interpretation (experience of “red” or “pain”); things that can be quantified, larger/smaller, longer/shorter
Mediate experience: influenced by past experience (expectation that flowers or blood are “red”) or that the pain in my mouth is caused by a toothache or cavity; interpretations of meaning of sensations
mediate experiences not objective, and since influenced by a past that is difficult to control – can’t be quantified, and not good subject for scientific study

16. Introspection
Is the examination of one’s own mental state, “internal perception”
Previously used in psychophysics to study sensation
Wundt added precise experimental control over the conditions
Method deemed okay to study these elements was called introspection
Introspection: the examination of one’s own mental state, “internal perception”
The only way to get at internal state was to have a person examine it themselves and report what they found
Previously used in psychophysics to study sensation (ex. is object heavier than comparison object?)
Wundt added precise experimental control over the conditions, so that laws governing perception could be discerned
Ex. changing exactly how fast the metronome goes
Problem here: only immediate experiences could be studies, but we are not usually conscious of immediate experiences,
So people need lots of training to do something that is not quite natural
W required his observers/subjects to have intense training in how to introspect properly
b/c for observations to be valid, they had to be repeatable b/t observers and in other labs
10,000 introspections before he considered them trained
The idea was that if a person did it often enough, he/she could start reporting elements automatically and quickly (immediate experiences) w/o letting interpretations (mediate experiences) change reports

17. Introspection Wundt’s four rules
Observers must know when the procedure will begin
Observers must be “in a state of readiness or strained attention”
The observation must be repeatable numerous times
The experimental conditions must be varied in terms of control over stimulus manipulation
Wundt’s four rules for introspection
Observers must know when the procedure will begin
Observers must be “in a state of readiness or strained attention”
The observation must be repeatable numerous times
The experimental conditions must be varied in terms of control over stimulus manipulation (or it wouldn’t be experimental)

18. Voluntarism From “volition” = will
Power of the will to organize mental elements into higher-level thought processes
Emphasized the activity, not the elements
Process is NOT passive
However, W realized that normally we do not experience the elements of consciousness, (ie, for a tree, we don’t stand near one and become aware of green, brown, roughness, whisper of leaves, instead we see the whole tree)
How to explain this?
W thought we organized elements into higher-level thought processes, in a process he called voluntarism (from word volition – by which he meant that the mind actively organizes sensations/feelings into higher-level processes)
Process not passive as British associationists had thought
Major difference w/ Tichener, who would emphasize elements instead of process of organizing elements

19. Apperception
process of combining elements into a whole concept, which often leads to emergent qualities
Opposite of the passive, mechanical associationism of most of the other British empiricists
Precursor to gestalt idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts
Remember I said that W realized that normally we do not experience the elements of consciousness, (ie, for a tree, we don’t stand near one and become aware of green, brown, roughness, whisper of leaves, instead we see the whole tree)
Apperception: Active process of associating elements into a whole concept, which often leads to emergent qualities (creative synthesis)
Some examples
In other sciences, chemistry
hydrogen and oxygen are gases, odorless, colorless, …
put them together in right combination and right situation, you get water, which looks nothing like the gases
individual notes make up a melody that is more than simply the notes
In psychology,
add light of different colors together to get white (a perception)
Opposite of the passive, mechanical associationism of most of the other British empiricists (who was the exception to this? John stuart mill)
Precursor to gestalt idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts

20. Apperception http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallColor.html
In psychology,
add light of different colors together to get white (a perception)

21. Review of Zeitgeist Mechanism Reductionism Determinism Empiricism
Now get together in groups of three and write down how Wundt’s work exemplified each of these ideas
Mechanism: everything is a machine
Reductionism: find parts to understand function - Consciousness made of many parts or elements (reductionism)
Emotions = compounds of feeling elements, so if you could find feelings, you could get to “elements” of the emotion
Determinism: no free will, every action has a cause, nothing happens without a reason
Empiricism: experimentation

22. The fate of Wundt's psychology in Germany
In Germany, psychology remained a subspecialty of philosophy for 20 years
Lack of financial support from government
In contrast, psychology in the United States grew more rapidly
Other economic and political contextual forces
Economic collapse of Germany after WWI
Financial ruin of German universities
Destruction of Wundt's laboratory during WWII bombing
In Germany, psychology remained a subspecialty of philosophy for 20 years
Lack of financial support from government (contextual factor)
Usefulness of the sub-discipline was doubted
Not appropriate for solving real-life problems, and W had no interest in trying to apply it to real life
In contrast, psychology in the United States grew more rapidly

23. Criticisms of Wundtian psychology
Disapproval of method of introspection
Differences in results obtained by different observers
Who is correct?
Introspection as a private experience
Cannot settle disagreements by repeating the observations in different subjects
Other psychologists suggested alternative methods, and succeeded in studying higher cognitive processes
Criticisms:
1. Disapproval of method of introspection
Differences in results obtained by different observers
Who is correct?
Introspection as a private experience
Cannot settle disagreements by repeating the observations in different subjects
Other psychologists suggested alternative methods (instead of introspection), and succeeded in studying higher cognitive processes, even though W thought it impossible
(we will be seeing an example of this in a few minutes, with Ebbinghaus)

24. Criticisms of Wundtian psychology
Wundt’s personal political views
Blamed England for starting WWI
Viewed the German invasion of Belgium as self-defense
Other schools of thought:
In Europe, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis challenged and outshined Wundt's views
In the United States, functionalism and behaviorism overshadowed Wundtian psychology
2. Wundt’s personal political views
Blamed England for starting WWI
Viewed the German invasion of Belgium as self-defense
3. Other schools of thought:
In Europe, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis challenged and outshined Wundt's views
In the United States, functionalism and behaviorism overshadowed Wundtian psychology

25. Which theory does Wundt’s work support?
Personalistic theory?
Naturalistic theory?
Get into another group…

26. Wundt’s legacy Rejection of nonscientific thinking
Summarized and combined physiology and philosophy
Training the first generation of psychologists
Severing of ties between psychology and non-modern philosophy
Served well in provoking rebellions
Considered by many as the “most important psychologist of all time”
Legacy
Rejection of nonscientific thinking (avoiding discussions of the soul by stressing conscious experience and empirical methods)
Summarized and combined physiology and philosophy (published extensively, formal textbooks)
Training the first generation of psychologists
Severing of ties between psychology and non-modern philosophy
Served well in provoking rebellions
Considered by many as the “most important psychologist of all time”

27. Looking ahead…
Psychology fraught with divisions and controversies from the beginning
New ideas appearing other countries
Darwin
Freud
Titchener
Germany did not remain the center of psychology
Psychology fraught with divisions and controversies from the beginning
people not liking W’s way of doing things, psychoanalysis, structuralism, functionalism (Darwin), behaviorism
New ideas appearing
in England (Darwin) – looking at usefulness of behaviors
Freud in austria – importance of developmental periods, unconsciousness instead of consciousness
In US – Titchener – more pragmatic version
Titchener brought his own version of Wundt's psychology to the United States
Germany did not remain the center of psychology

28. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) Gentleman scientist Read Fechner’s works
Studied learning and memory with nonsense syllables
Gentleman scientist – went to college, but after that retired to his estate and started doing experiments on memory
Read Fechner’s works – greatly influenced him to try to study mind by making exact measurements while changing conditions
Studied learning and memory with nonsense syllables (he didn’t actually call them that, coined later)
Nonsense syllables – three or more letters, starting and ending with consonant, vowel in between, like LEF or NIN or BOK
Made a whole list of them, then randomly selected certain number
Repeated them a certain number of times, or under certain circumstances, or lists of different lengths, just to see what would happen to recall
Natural topic, considering that he was in England, where British associationists were found, and their typical topic of study was memory
Two Important differences b/t them, though –
BA looked at already formed associations and tried to figure out where they came from, E started with two pieces of info not linked to try to see how link was formed – made it more objective b/c he could control environment that associations were made in (remember, this was exactly what Wundt had been worried about, why he said these types of cognitions could not be studied scientifically, he couldn’t think of a way to control the conditions, like E did)
BA did not experiment, E did
Here’s what he found out

29. Forgetting Curve
E learned series of nonsense syllables, tested to see when and how he forgot info (repetitions, fatigue, practice)
Measured time from learning period and percent recalled correctly
Result: Forgetting rapid at first, then levels off (NOT linear)

30. Structuralism Chapter 5: Very similar in manner to Wundt,
Sometimes thought of as mirror images of each other, down to the beard,
Look at pictures, W on left, T on right,
Would make big production out of his lectures, dressed in robes, all other faculty arrived from stage door, sat in front rows, he would enter opposite stage door
Like most other scientists who eventually called themselves psychologists
In college studied philosophy, worked as assistant in physiology
After college (in England), wanted to study the new psychology of W’s
but at his college no one else was that interested in it, discouraged him from studying it,
So he had to go to Germany,
Studied under W for two years and got his doctorate
Afterwards went back to england, but people there still skeptical about use of this new science,
So he went to US
very influential – because he translated most of Wundt’s work into English, he slanted things to his viewpoint, for long time Wundt and Titchener treated as synonymous, but not true

31. Introduction
Wundt’s experimental psychology was introduced in America by Titchener
Titchener claimed to be a loyal disciple of Wundt, but in fact he altered these ideas radically
The label “structuralism” can only be applied to Titchener’s work
Wundt’s experimental psychology was introduced in America by Titchener
Titchener claimed to be a loyal disciple of Wundt, but in fact he altered these ideas radically
The label “structuralism” can only be applied to Titchener’s work

32. Titchener: Structuralism
Opposed Wundt's approach
Titchener interested in elements/parts, not “wholes”
Much more mechanistic than Wundt
His observers were passive, impartial, mechanical instruments recording stimuli
Opposed Wundt's approach
Titchener interested in elements/parts, not “wholes”
He thought of elements as something like bricks
Much more mechanistic than Wundt
His observers were passive, impartial, mechanical instruments recording stimuli

33. Titchener’s Personality
Autocratic
But also helpful and kind at times
Both rather autocratic, “absolute ruler of all they survey”
T made a dramatic production out of lectures for classroom, a little bit like W, altho even more dramatic
junior faculty had to attend, enter room all together and file to front seats,
T entered from opposite side, wearing robes
Could be very helpful (as long as he was given what he considered his due deference)
students worshipped him, emulated him
if you crossed him and rebelled you could get excommunicated
Examples:
one student wanted to go medical school, which T didn’t like b/c he had just taught this student how to do psychology, and going to med school would be wasting of all that time and effort, so he got the man a teaching job instead to keep him in psychology

34. “Titchener’s experimentalists”
Regular meetings to share research observations and listen to guest speakers
no women allowed!
Wundt wanted an atmosphere where he could smoke and speak freely without fear of offending anyone
Women “too pure to smoke”
Refused Christine Ladd-Franklin's request to present her research, which she actively protested for years
Titchener’s experimentalists: Regular meetings to share research observations and listen to guest speakers
rule: no women
wanted an atmosphere where he could smoke and speak freely without fear of offending anyone
Women “too pure to smoke”
Refused Christine Ladd-Franklin's request to present her research, which she actively protested for years

35. On the other hand …
Titchener actively worked to advance women in psychology
Accepted women in his graduate programs
1/3 of the 56 doctorates awarded by him were to women, more than any other contemporary psychologist
Advocated for hiring female faculty
Margaret Floy Washburn 1st women to earn doctorate in psychology and Wundt's 1st doctoral student
Titchener actively worked to advance women in psychology
Accepted women in his graduate programs
1/3 of the 56 doctorates awarded by him were to women, more than any other contemporary psychologist
Advocated for hiring female faculty
Margaret Floyd Washburn 1st women to earn doctorate in psychology and Wundt's 1st doctoral student