1. The philosophes of the Enlightenment PART I
History 311

2. The Enlightenment
In the eighteenth century, a daring and dramatically new intellectual and cultural movement arose in western Europe. Of its many characteristics — audacity, wit, an interest in the practical and the applied —none was more important than its critical, biting edge. This opinionated movement called for “enlightenment”— for new thinking about once unquestioned truths and eventually for new actions. Best characterized by the metaphor of light, the Enlightenment has retrained the name it acquired early in the eighteenth century. (Jacob, p. 1)

3. Enlightenment as Intellectual Movement
Difficult to Date – 18th Century – Primarily in France
Led by a diverse group of intellectuals commonly called the philosophes
Not so much a coherent philosophy, but an intellectual movement—the 18th century version of the cultural wars
Intellectual Roots of Liberalism—political, economic, and social liberalism

4. Defining Characteristics
Reason vs Revelation
Secular
Deism
Empirical
Toleration
Freedom of Speech
Freedom of Press
Religious Freedom
Anti-clerical and anti-authoritarian
Emphasis upon Education
Equality before the Law
Cultural Relativism
Theory of Progress

5. Newtonian Worldview Principia, 1687 Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727
One universal, mathematical law
explains all motion in universe
World of nature open to human
investigation and knowledge
Mechanical view of nature
Orderly, regulated, uniform
Machine operates by natural laws
Natural Laws can be Known by Man
Principia, 1687

6. John Locke Denies Innate Ideas Tabula rasa Sensation Reflection
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690
Denies Innate Ideas
Tabula rasa
Sensation
Reflection
Lockean Epistemology
Does for Human Mind
What Newton Does for
Universe
John Locke

7. John Locke Laissez-faire liberalism in religion and politics
A Letter Concerning Toleration, 1689,1690,1692
Laissez-faire liberalism in religion and politics
Limitations of the human mind
Political Dualism
Civil & Ecclesiastical Realms

8. Forming Political Society: The Social Contract
What is gained:
“Established, settled, known law”
“a known and indifferent judge”
Power to enforce the law
What is given up:
Individual right to determine and punish violators of the law

9. Conclusions
Locke gives theoretical basis for modern political liberalism:
Political authority resides in the individual
Establishes the right to revolution
Locke gives theoretical basis for modern economic liberalism
Property rights reside in the individual
The use of money justifies economic inequality
Locke’s influence in America and the modern world--incalculable

10. The Crisis of the European Mind and the Debate Over Religious Toleration

11. Blaise Pascal,1623-1662 Child Prodigy and Mathematical Genius
Work on Conic Sections & Probability Theory
Scientific Work on Barometer
1654 Mystical Experience
Provincial Letters & Pensées
“The heart has its reasons of which reason knows nothing.”

12. Pierre Bayle, 1647-1706 Huguenot Refugee in Rotterdam
Skeptic and Advocate for Toleration
Nouvelles de la République des Lettres
Historical and Critical Dictionary , 1697

13. The philosophes of the Enlightenment PART II
History 311

14. Richard Simon,
Catholic Priest taught by the Fathers of the Oratory
Critical History of the Old Testament
Latter Volumes on the New Testament
Significance of Biblical Criticism

15. Baron de Montesquieu 1689-1755 Persian Letters, 1721
Spirit of the Laws, 1748
Cultural Relativism
Making a “science of society”
Doing for Human Institutions
What Newton Did for Physical
Universe

16. Spirit of the Laws, 1748 Method—Seeks operative laws
Nature and Principle (or Spirit)
Three Kinds of Government
Republican (Virtue)
Monarchy (Honor)
Despotism (Fear)
Checks and Balances
Legislative
Executive
Judicial
Control of Military
Baron de Montesquieu

17. Denis Diderot 1713-1784 Born in Langres, France Son of cutler
Educated by Jesuits
Philosophical Thoughts, 1746
Active in salon culture
Letter on the Blind, for Use of Those Who See, 1749

18. Denis Diderot 1713-1784 Encyclopedia,
or a systematic dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts

19.
Under the Direction of his Father, the Chancellor, Malesherbes was official censor of the press during Reign of Louis XV
Chretien-Guillaume de Lamoignon de Malesherbes

20. Mathematician & Philosopher
Co-Editor of Encyclopedia Project with Diderot
Author of the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia
Jean le Rond d'Alembert

21. 11 volumes of illustrations, issued from 1762 to 1772
17 volumes of articles,
issued from 1751 to 1765
11 volumes of illustrations,
issued from 1762 to 1772
18,000 pages of text
75,000 entries
44,000 main articles
28,000 secondary articles
2,500 illustration indices
20,000,000 words in total

22. Typical of Encyclopedia
Plates on Technology

23. Frontispiece to Encyclopedia
Symbolism of the Bright Light of Truth
Reason and Philosophy remove the Veil

24. The philosophes of the Enlightenment PART III
History 311

25. Frontispiece to Encyclopedia
Symbolism of the Bright Light of Truth
Reason and Philosophy remove the Veil

26. Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin

27. Madame de Tencin
Julie de Lespinasse
Marie du Deffand

28. Boucher Painting of Madame de Pompadour
Mistress to Louis XV

29. Voltaire Francois Marie Arouet 1694-1778
Personification of the Enlightenment
Poet, novelist, playwright, essayist
Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733
Candide, 1759
Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

30. Voltaire 1694-1778 English Visit 1726 (Rohan Affair)
Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733
Elected to French Academy, 1746
Candide, 1759
Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

31. Frontispiece of Voltaire/Chatelet
Émilie, Marquise du Châtelet-Laumont ( )
Frontispiece of Voltaire/Chatelet
Translation of Newton
Cirey Period ( )

32. Voltaire 1694-1778 English Visit 1726 (Rohan Affair)
Letters Concerning the English Nation, 1733
Elected to French Academy, 1746
Candide, 1759
Philosophical Dictionary, 1764

33. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
Alexander Pope
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
Essay on Man, 1734
Theodicy, 1710

34. “Optimism” “The Best of All Possible Worlds” “Whatever is, is Right”
System of Theodicy – Leibniz
Metaphysical Evil
Moral Evil
Physical Evil

35. Voltaire 1694-1778 Berlin Period (1750-1753)
Geneva/Ferney Period ( )
Lisbon Earthquake, 1755
Jean Calas Case ( )
Ecrasez l’infame
Triumphal Return to Paris, 1778

36. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Founder of Romanticism?
Contributions to Political Theory, Educational Theory & Literature
Early Life
Born in Geneva
Aimless Early Life
Arrives in Paris 1742
Confessions (circa 1770’s)
The New Heloise, 1761
Emphasis on Feeling and Authenticity
Challenge to the Emphasis on “Reason”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau

37. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, 1751
Discourse on Inequality, 1755
The Social Contract, 1762
“The General Will”

38. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, 1751
First Discourse (Prize Essay for the Academy of Dijon)
“Has the re-establishment of arts and sciences contributed to purge or corrupt our manners?”
“What a happiness it would be to live amongst us, if our exterior appearance were always the true representation of our hearts…”
“Before art had new molded our behaviors, and taught our passions to talk an affected language, our manners were indeed rustic, but sincere and natural…”

39. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Discourse on the Origins of Inequality, 1755
Second Discourse (Prize Essay for the Academy of Dijon)
“What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it authorized by natural law?“
“All ran headlong to their chains, in hopes of securing their liberty; for they had just wit enough to perceive the advantages of political institutions, without experience enough to enable them to foresee the dangers.”
Man is naturally good…in the state of nature.
Property and greed create distinctions and create the need for the state and law

40. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract, 1762
How could this fraudulent contract of government be made legitimate?
“Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. How did this change come about? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? That question I think I can answer.”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
“The General Will”

41. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Nature of the Social Compact
“The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before. This is the fundamental problem of which the social contract provides the solution.”
“Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.”
“The General Will”

42. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Nature of the Social Compact
“In order then that the social compact may not be an empty formula, it tacitly includes the undertakings, which alone can give force to the rest, that whoever refuses to obey the general will shall be compelled to do so by the whole body. This means nothing less than that he will be forced to be free… .” (Kramnick, p, 435)
“There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will; the latter considers only the common interest, while the former takes private interest into account, and is no more than a sum of particular wills...”
(Kramnick, p, 437)
“The General Will”

43. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Nature of the Social Compact
“As soon as public service ceases to be the chief business of the citizens and they would rather serve with their money than with their persons, the State is not far from its fall. When it is necessary to march out to war, they pay troops and stay at home: when it is necessary to meet in council, they name deputies and stay at home. By reason of idleness and money, they end by having soldiers to enslave their country and representatives to sell it.”
“Good laws lead to the making of better ones; bad ones bring about worse. As soon as any man says of the affairs of the State, ‘What does it matter to me?,’ the State may be given up for lost.” (
“The General Will”

44. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Nouvelle Heloise and Emile
Great success of Sentimental Novel
Emile
Profession of Faith of the Savoyard Vicar
Educational Theory

45. Francis Hutcheson 1694-1746 System of Moral Philosophy, 1755
“Moral Sense School”
“A Sense is every determination of our minds to receive ideas independently of our will, and to have perceptions of pleasure and pain.”
Five Senses, plus…
Public Sense
Moral Sense
Sense of Honor
Francis Hutcheson

46. Adam Smith 1723-1790 The Wealth of Nations, 1776 Economic Liberalism
laissez faire
The Hidden Hand
Theory of Progress

47. Claude Adrien Helvetius
De l’esprit, 1758
A Treatise on Man; his Intellectual Faculties and his Education, 1772
Radical Empiricist and Determinist
Human behavior completely determined by education and social environment.
We seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain…anticipates the British Utilitarians
Claude Adrien Helvetius
( )

48. Immanuel Kant 1724-1804 Critique of Pure Reason, 1781
What is Enlightenment?, 1784
Critique of Practical Reason, 1788

49. Defining Characteristics
Reason vs Revelation
Secular
Deism
Empirical
Toleration
Freedom of Speech
Freedom of Press
Religious Freedom
Anti-clerical and anti-authoritarian
Emphasis upon Education
Equality before the Law
Cultural Relativism
Theory of Progress

50. Intellectual Assumptions of Liberal Democracy—What was the real impact of ideas in the Ancien Regime?
“The Enlightenment was an Ancien Regime phenomenon. The Revolution transformed it by wrenching it, like so much else, into a new and different shape.”
--William Doyle

51. Noted Mathematician & Scientist
Systematically Applied Mathematics to the social sciences
Advocate for Human Rights, including rights for women and blacks
Directly involved in the French Revolution
Theory of Progress
Marquis de Condorcet

52. Olympe de Gouges 1745-1793 Feminist Author and Advocate
Declaration of the Rights of Women

53. The Abolition of Slavery in France , 1791
Slavery Abolished in Colonies, 1794

54. François-Dominique Toussaint L'OuvertureC
Ex-Slave and Leader of Revolt
In Haiti During the Revolution

55. Fears of Direct Democracy “Factions” Balance of Powers
Fourth President of United States and
“Father of the U.S. Constitution”
Federalist Papers,
Fears of Direct Democracy
“Factions”
Balance of Powers
Republic over Democracy
James Madison

56. Thomas Jefferson
When , in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and nature’s God entitle them…

57. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness.
Thomas Jefferson

58. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized

59. No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

60. POLITICAL LIBERALISM
1.  Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.
2.  The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

61. POLITICAL LIBERALISM
3.  The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.
4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law.

62. POLITICAL LIBERALISM
5.  Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law.
6.  Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents.

63. POLITICAL LIBERALISM
10.  No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law.
11.  The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.

64. Implicit in the Declaration
Declaration of Independence
The Doctrine of Equality
The Doctrine of Consent
The Doctrine of Popular Sovereignty
The Right of Revolution

65. LIBERALISM
Political Liberalism
Economic Liberalism
Social Liberalism