1. Transitional words and phrases Paragraph coherence
轉折語氣
段落一致性

2. Contents: Transition signals Paragraph coherence Clarity
Compound Adjectives
Write as much as is appropriate

3. Transition signals

4. Transition signals are connecting words or phrases that act like bridges between parts of your writing.
Transition signals act like signposts to indicate to the reader the order and flow of your writing and ideas.
They strengthen the internal cohesion of your writing. Using transitions makes it easier for the reader to follow your ideas.
They help carry over a thought from one sentence to another, from one paragraph to another, or from one idea to another.

5. Three types of Transition signals
- transition phrases
- conjunctive adverbs
1. Sentence Connectors
2. Clause connectors
3. Others
coordinating conjunctions
subordinating conjunctions

6. 1. Sentence Connectors (transition phrases & conjunctive adverbs)
Appear in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
A coma is needed.
Example:
For example, the Baltic Sea (, for example) in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Rea Sea in the Middle East (, for example).

7. Conjunction Adverbs:
Often used with a semicolon and a comma to join two independent clauses.
Examples:
In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, its net profit declined.
Some English words do not have exact equivalents in other languages; for example, there is no German word for the adjective fair, as in fair play.

8. 2. Clause Connectors Coordinating conjunctions 對等連接:
Used with a comma to join two independent clauses and to form a compound sentence.
Examples:
In a matriarchy, the mother is the head of the family, and all of the children belong to her clan.
In warm climate zones, water evaporates, so the concentration of salt is greater.

9. Yet and But: Yet and But an opposite idea is coming.
Yet: preferred when the 2nd clause is an unexpected or surprising contrast to the 1st clause.
But: preferred when the 2 clauses are direct oppositions.
Yet is similar in meaning to “nevertheless”.
But is similar to “however”.
Examples:
Thomas Edison dropped out of school at age 12, yet he became a famous inventor.
I want to study art, but my parents want me to become an engineer.

10. Subordinating conjunctions 從屬連接
Used to introduce a dependent clause, which is joined to form a complex sentence.
Position: use a comma if the DC comes before the IC; do not use a comma if the DC comes after the IC.
Examples:
Although the company’s sale increased last year, its net profit declined.
The company’s net profit declined last year although its sales increased.

11. 3. Others Indicating transition:
additional (adj.); despite (prep.); examples (n.).
Examples:
An additional reason for the firm’s bankruptcy was the lack of competent management.
Examples of vocabulary differences between British and American English include petrol/gasoline, windscreen/windshield, and lorry/truck.
Despite increased sales, the company’s profit declined last quarter.

12. Common Transition Signals

13. To introduce an opposite idea, and to contrast things
Meaning / function
Sentence connectors
Clause connectors
Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To introduce a similar additional idea
also
besides
furthermore
in addition
moreover
too
and
nor (and not)
another
an additional
To compare things
likewise
similarly
both…and
not only…but also
neither…nor as
just as
as…as
like/alike
just like
similar to
be alike
be similar
To introduce an opposite idea, and to contrast things
however
in contrast
instead
in/by comparison
nevertheless
on the other hand
on the contrary
still
but
yet
although
even though
though
whereas
while
despite
in spite of
compared to/with
be different (from)
be dissimilar
be unlike
differ (from)

14. to introduce an alternative
Meaning / function
Sentence connectors
Clause connectors
Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To introduce an example
For example
For instance
In this case
such as
like
an example of
to demonstrate
take the case of
To emphasize
In fact
To explain and restate
Indeed (really, certainly)
That is
to introduce an alternative
otherwise or If
unless

15. Meaning / function Sentence connectors Clause connectors Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To indicate time
thereafter
then
soon
at that time
at this point
Immediately
before, after
during
prior to
formerly
finally
Previously
To signal chronological order
first, second, then, next…
first of all, now, soon
last, finally
meanwhile
gradually
after that
since then
after as
as soon as
before
since
until
when
while
the first, the second
the next, the last, the final
before lunch
after the war
since 1990
in the year 2008
(any time expression)

16. Meaning / function Sentence connectors Clause connectors Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To indicate order of important
above all
first and foremost
more/most importantly/ significantly
primarily
a more important
the most important
the second most significant
the primary
To introduce a cause or reason
consequently
therefore
for this purpose
for
because
since as
result from
be the result of
due to
because of
the effect of
the consequence of
as a result of
as a consequence of

17. Meaning / function Sentence connectors Clause connectors Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To introduce an effect or result
Accordingly
As a result
As a consequence
Consequently
Hence, thus
Therefore so
result in
cause
have an effect on
affect
the cause of
the reason for
To conclude
All in all
In brief
In conclusion
In short
In summary
In deed
accordingly
It is clear that…
We can see that…
The evidence suggests that…
These examples show that…

18. Sample Text
Sample text:

19. Paragraph Coherence Coherence: how sentences hold together.
A coherent paragraph does more than simply lay down the facts -- it organizes them, creating a logical argument that makes sense from idea to idea.
Coherent paragraphs have a beginning, a middle, and an end.

20. Four ways to achieve coherence:
1. Repeating key nouns / key words 2. Using linking pronouns 3. Using transition signals 4. Applying logical order

21. Example
Limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. A high rate of urban population growth has increased the country's needs for housing. A small group of city officials has laid out a new plan to combat the crisis. A solution to the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue here. The housing problem has grown in the last twenty years.
Limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. In fact, the problem has grown in the last twenty years. Because a high rate of urban population growth has increased the country's needs for housing, a solution to the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue here. A small group of city officials has laid out a new plan to combat the crisis.
weak
improved
Although related by topic (housing shortage), each sentence makes its own separate point with no link to the sentences before or after. The result is a group of related yet separate ideas instead of one coherent paragraph.
Each separate fact now flows into the next, creating a coherent whole.

22. Why is this paragraph less coherent?

23. Repetition of key nouns
(how many key nouns, pronouns are used?)

24. Use of consistent pronouns: Avoid change of person or change of number
Use of consistent pronouns: Avoid change of person or change of number. (why is it inconsistent?)

25. Transition signals Which paragraph is easier to understand?

26. Clarity
Make sure every pronoun has a clear antecedent.

27. Examples: Norden picked up the wrench, removed the nut,
and handed it to Robert.
Complaining angrily, John wrote it up and sent it to the
newspaper. (what is it?)
Norden picked up the wrench, removed the nut,
and handed the tool to Robert.
Angrily, John wrote up his complaint and sent it to the
newspaper.

28. Avoid the use of the indefinite it and they.
In the college handbook, it lists the holidays we get in the
winter quarter.
At DuPont, they provide very reasonable health insurance.
The college handbook lists the holidays we get in the winter
quarter.
DuPont provides very reasonable health insurance.

29. Eliminate the vague it, they, is when, and is where.
1. In Oregon, they have passed a law which encourages the recycling of waste materials.
2. In the instruction manual, it explains how to operate an chewing machine.
3. Inflation is when the dollar is worth less than previously.
4. At the Farmers’ Auction Block is where they have many buyers of truck crops.
Oregon has passed a law which …
The instruction manual explains how to operate…
Inflation occurs when the dollar is ....
Many buyers of truck crops are at the Farmers’ Action Block.

30. practice
1. I went with Brad to Phil’s place because he wanted company.
2. Peter spoke to the assistant, and he was very rude.
3. The division manger always favored Sam. This
angered the other employees.
4. John showed the news reporter how to take good
pictures, and his pictures turned out beautifully.
Because Brad wanted company, I went with him to Phil’s place.
Peter spoke very rudely to the assistant.
This action angered…
the reporter’s pictures

31. 5. Gail hired the waitress, which was a wise move on her part.
6. After the electrician installed new switches in the motors, some of them did not work.
7. Plant three-food azalea in front of the seven-food rhododendrons to make them stand out.
8. As the ferry boat approaches the tugboat, it blows a warning.
Gail’s hiring of the waitress was a wise move on her part. Gail hired the waitress. This move was wise on her part.
some of the switches did not work.
the rhododendrons (or the azaleas) stand out.
The ferry boat blows a warning as it approaches the tugboat.

32. Compound Adjectives 複合形容詞

33. A single adjective made up of two or more words is called a "compound adjective".
The words in a compound adjective are linked together by a hyphen (or hyphens) to show that they are part of the same adjective.
A compound adjective is a modifier of a noun. Compound adjectives do not always have hyphens. 
They are hyphenated to avoid confusion.

34. Types of hyphenated compound adjectives
1. Adjective + Noun (including comparatives and superlatives)
2. Numeric+ Noun (Singular)
3. Noun + Noun
(Adjectival phrases are often hyphenated to avoid confusion with nouns.)
A red-light district.  A full-time employee.  A high-level requirement. 
A large-scale development.  A shorter-term solution
A seven-year itch.  A ten-storey building.  A five-minute walk
A parent-teacher conference.  Some food-web dependencies. 
A crude-oil processing.  An ice-cream shop

35. B、形容詞為主的複合形容詞: 1. Adjective + Adjective 2. Noun + Adjective
A dark-green dress. 
A bitter-sweet memory.
A water-proof jacket. 
A nation-wide campaign. 
A duty-free shop. 
A world-famous player.

36. C、分詞為主的複合形容詞: 主動語態 - 用現在分詞 被動語態 - 用過去分詞 1. Adjective + Participle
1. Adjective + Participle
2. Adverb + Participle
3. Noun + Participle
4. Numeric + Past Participle
5. Past Participle + Adverb
6. Past Participle + Preposition

37. 1. Adjective + Participle (including comparatives and superlatives)
2. Adverb + Participle
An ugly-looking goose = A goose which looks ugly.
A snow-covered mountain = A mountain which is covered with snow.
An eye-catching girl = A girl who catches people’s eyes.
A never-ending story = A story which never ends.
A well-paid salary. 
A well-respected teacher

38. 4. Numeric + Past Participle
3. Noun + Participle
4. Numeric + Past Participle
5. Past Participle + Adverb
6. Past Participle + Preposition
An adventure-packed quest = A quest which is packed with adventures.
A home-made cookie.= The cookie was made at home.
A heart-broken story.
A fun-loving person.
A one-eyed bear. 
A two-sided story
A laid-off worker = A work who is laid off.
A scaled-down operation.
An agreed-upon solution.

39. We should not place a hyphen in a compound adjective if
the adjectives are capitalized, such as when they are part
of a title.
His book was entitled, "Gender Neutral Language in
English Usage," and it revolutionized the way people think
about sex roles.
However: His book on gender-neutral language
revolutionized the way people think about sex roles.

40. practice 1.This is a dress which was made by hand.
2. It is a walk which takes just 7 minutes.
It is just a ___________ walk.
3. I like the house which was painted brown.
I like the ___________ house.
4. Can you see the star which is shining brightly?
Can you see the _____________ star.
5. This is a cake which is made carefully.
This is a ____________ cake.
hand-made
seven-minute
brown-painted
brightly-shining
carefully-made

41. Too Many Passive Sentences
Because passive sentence are usually longer and harder to read, using too many can make your writing slow and uninteresting.
Active sentences, on the other hand, are generally clearer, more direct, and seem stronger.
However, this does not mean you should stop using passive sentences. Use passive sentences only when you want to emphasize something important.

42. Suggestions about when to use passive sentences:
1. When the action is more important than the doer:
The theater was opened last month.
New students are invited to meet the dean in Room 126.
2. When the receiver of the action is more important than the doer:
Everyone was given a key to the gym.
The letters were faxed this morning.

43. 3. When the result of the action is more important than the doer: Our advice was followed by our clients. The new computers were installed by the system staff.
4. When you don’t know the doer, don’t care, or don’t want your reader to know:
A mistake was made, and all the scholarship application files. This report was written at the last minute.
5. When you want to sound objective:
The pigeons were observed over a period of three weeks. The subjects were divided into three groups.

44. Sentences that are too long or too short

45. (I). Too many long sentences:
The following sentence may be confusing to read because
of its length:
My favorite place to visit is my grandparents’ house near the
lake where we love to fish and swim, and we often take the boat out on the lake.
(Breaking the sentence into two can make your writing clearer and more interesting.)
My favorite place to visit is my grandparents’ house near the lake. We love to fish and swim there, and we often take the boat out on the lake.

46. (II). Sentences that are too short: Too many short sentences often makes the writing sound choppy:
I knew my friends would throw me a party. It was for my birthday. There was something in the air. I felt it for a whole week before that. I was nervous. I was also very excited. I got home that night. My friends didn’t disappoint me. I walked in my house. All my friends yelled, “surprise!”
To improve the above paragraph, you should join some of the short sentences using connectors.

47. Because it was my birthday, I knew my friends would through me a party
Because it was my birthday, I knew my friends would through me a party. There was something in the air for a whole week before that. I was nervous but excited when I got home that night. I wasn’t disappointed. When I walked in my house, all my friends yelled, “Surprise!”
A good style often involves the combination of both short and long sentences.

48. Write As Much As Is Appropriate
“The professional writer writes in plastic; the amateur writer writes in concrete.” this means that the professional works his sentences over and over, knowing that the first version is seldom the best.

49. One of the most common errors is using unnecessary words.
What is the obvious problem of the following sentence?
“Many uneducated citizens who have never attended
school continue to vote for better schools.”

50. Other examples
Each and every employee will report in writing and complete
and turn in form number 402 by August 31 not later.
Each employee will complete and turn in form 402 by August 31. (10 words saved)
The employers cooperated together and endorsed a
confirmation of the important essentials of the concurring
agreement.
The employers cooperated and endorsed the essentials
of the agreement.

51. Meaningless and Ineffective Usages
List of words/phrases that be made simpler:
12 midnight
midnight
3 am in the morning
3 am
a person who is honest
an honest person
a total of 14 birds
14 birds
circle around
circle
close proximity
proximity
end result
result
exactly the same
the same
Important and basic
essential

52. in spite of the fact that
although
in the field of economics
in economics
shorter/longer in length
shorter/longer
small/large in size
small/large
blue in color
blue
square/round/rectangular in shape
square/round/rectangular
summarize briefly
summarize
surrounded on all sides
surrounded
surrounding circumstances
circumstances
there is no doubt but that
no doubt
the future to come
the future

53. and also
and or also
basically, essentially, totally
(try to avoid these words)
Due to the fact that
due to, because
each every
each or every
equally as
(O) equally important
(O) as important as
(X) equally as important
Firstly, secondly, thirdly
first, second, third
kind of or sort of
somewhat, rather, slightly
lots or lots of
many or much
plus
and or moreover

54. a considerable amount of
much
The reason why is because
The reason is / because
on account of
because
a number of
several
referred to as
called
In a number of cases
some
has the capacity to
can
It is clear that
clearly
obviously apparent
apparently
It is apparent that
employ
use
fabricate
make

55. mix together
mix
combine together
combine
connect together
connect
for the purpose of
for….
to….
noticeable to the eye
noticeable
Visible to the eye
visible
Audible to the ear
audible
Alone all by himself
alone
during the winter months
during winter
In the month of May
In May
In the city of Detroit
In Detroit

56. Past experience
experience
Past history
history
In the final analysis
finally
Final conclusion
conclusion
Whole entire
entire
Might possible
might
Here in this place
here
Different variations
variations
In this day and age
today
Retrieve back
retrieve
Return back
return
Repeat again
Repeat
Prior to the time that
before

57. practice
1. The clerk reviewed the statement for the purpose of checking for errors.
2. All the students must know the absolutely basic fundamentals of grammar.
3. The politician tried to make his influence felt among the citizens.
4. The bank teller asked the customer to endorse the check on the back.
5. The governor’s assistant gave a speech on the subject of the resources of Texas.
6. The patient was to take his medicine at regular intervals of time.
checking
fundamentals
influence
endorse the check
a speech on
regularly

58. Only →注意這個字在句子中的位置。
當你要表達"He kicked that ball only ten yards." 的意思時，切勿寫成"He only kicked that ball ten yards."

59. Plague Words and Phrases

60. 1. “All things considered”: All things considered, Connecticut's woodlands are in better shape now than ever before. 2. “As a matter of fact”: As a matter of fact, there are more woodlands in Connecticut now than there were in “At the present time”: This is because there are fewer farmers at the present time.
Connecticut's  woodlands are in better shape now than ever before.
There are more woodlands in Connecticut now than there  were in 1898.
This is because there are fewer farmers now.

61. 4. “Because of the fact that”:
Woodlands have grown in area because of the fact that farmers have abandoned  their fields.
5. “Exists”:
The fear that exists among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for.
6. “For the most part”:
For the most part, people's suspicions are  based on a misunderstanding of the facts.
Woodlands have grown in area because farmers have abandoned their fields.
The fear among many people that we are losing our woodlands is uncalled for.
People's suspicions are based on a misunderstanding of the facts.

62. 7. “In my opinion”:
In my opinion, this wasteful policy ought  to be revoked.
8. “In the case of”:
In the case of this particular policy, citizens of northeast Connecticut became very upset.
9. “In the final analysis”:
In the final analysis, the state would have been better off without such a policy.
10. “In the process of”:
Legislators are already in the process of reviewing the statutes.
This wasteful policy ought to be revoked.
Citizens of northeast Connecticut became very upset about his policy.
The state would  have been better off without such a  policy.
Legislators are already reviewing the statutes.

63. 11. “It seems that”:
It seems that they can't wait to get rid of this one.
12. “The point I am trying to make”:
The point I am trying to make is that sometimes public policy doesn't  accomplish what it set out to achieve.
13. “Type of”:
Legislators need to be more careful of the type of policy they propose.
They can't wait to get  rid of this one.
Sometimes public policy doesn't  accomplish what it set out to achieve.
Legislators need to be more careful of the policy they propose.

64. Web links
(Phrasal Verb Dictionary)
(Phrasal verb introduction)
(common mistakes)
(common Phrasal Verbs )

65. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ (普渡大學寫作中心)
(The Chinese online writing lab – 柯泰德 Ted Knoy)
(廖柏森 英語與翻譯教學 )
(文法寫作指南)
(Common writing problems)