1. CHAPTER 10: DNA,RNA & Protein Synthesis

2. Discovery of DNA- Timeline
1865- Gregor Mendel – discovered “Heredity” characteristics are transmitted in units.
1869 – DNA molecule isolated from cells by Frederick Miescher.
1879 – Mitosis (chromosomes stained & observed during cell division) -described by Walter Flemming.
1900- Mendel’s work is “rediscovered” by botanists.
1902- Walter Sutton- Chromosome theory. (he observed segregation of chromosomes during meiosis – this matched Mendel’s law of segregation.

3. 1911- Thomas Hunt Morgan & students- study fruit flies- show chromosomes carry genes.
1928- Frederick Griffith- “transformation” – hereditary material passed from 1 bacterial cell to another.
1944- Oswald Avery- shows hereditary information is transferred on DNA in bacteria.
1944- Barbara McClintock- “jumping genes” on corn.
1952- Hershey & Chase- DNA- NOT proteins -is the material that hereditary.
1953- Watson & Crick- double helix DNA structure.
1955- Joe Hin Tjio- humans have 46 chromosomes.
1959- Jerome Lejune- trisomy 21 (3 copies rather than 2 of chromosme 21) causes Down’s syndrome.

4. 1966- genetic code cracked- figure out which 4 nucleic acids “spell” each amino acid.
1972- recombinant DNA- insert DNA of 1 species into another (usually bacteria)
1976- Genetech (1st genetic engineering company) founded. By 1982 markets 1 recombinant drug- insulin.
disease gene mapped- Huntington’s- on chromosome 4.
1990- launch 15 yr. Human Genome Project. (to sequence all 3.2 billion letters of the human genome)
1994- FDA- approves sale of genetically modified food.
1997- “Dolly” the sheep is cloned (England-Wilmut)
Human Genome Project “completed”.

5. Discussion of Experiments
1. Frederick Griffith
He was working to find a vaccine against “S” smooth virulent (disease causing) strains of bacteria.
Steps in experiment 1. 2. 3. 4.

6. Griffith Experiment Conclusions:
Killed virulent bacteria survived the heating process -& was somehow incorporated into the genetic material of the non-virulent strain -to cause them to become virulent.
“Transformation” is transfer of genetic material from one organism to another.
2. Since heat denatures protein, he suggested that the genetic material must be made of something else.

7. 2. Oswald Avery -proteins or nucleotides?
Followed up on Griffith's experiment in 1940’s
Like Griffith, he first used heat to kill virulent bacteria.
Then extracted RNA, DNA, & proteins from these dead cells (all considered possible carriers of genetic information).
Next -added each type of molecule to a culture of live non-virulent bacteria to determine which was responsible for changing them into virulent bacteria as Griffith had observed.
Only the non-virulent cells which were given DNA from the dead virulent strain became virulent, so Avery concluded that DNA must be the genetic material.

8. Alfred Hershey – Martha Chase:
1952-Test to see if DNA or protein was hereditary material transferred by virus when infecting a bacterium.
Bacteriophages- are
the type of virus that
infects bacterium.
Used Radioactive labels -virus protein coat with (35S)
-virus DNA with (32 P)
After experiment: only DNA entered bacterial cell.

10. 4. Watson & Crick
1953 DNA structure discovered
Double Helix model.
(2 chains of DNA)
Showed how DNA could replicate.
Relied on work of other scientists:
Rosalind Franklin & Maurice Wilkins took X-ray photos of DNA structure
( Franklin died 1958 before Watson & Crick received Nobel Prize )

11. DNA structure
Double Helix shape is formed by base pairs attached to a sugar-phosphate backbone.
-Each full turn of the helix has 10 nucleotide pairs.
- count them at right:

12. Parts of Nucleotides 1. 5 carbon sugar in DNA- deoxyribose
(in RNA= ribose)
2. phosphate group
3. nitrogenous bases ( there are 4 different ones)
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
(in RNA- no thymine- Uracil is the base)

13. How Chemical Bonds hold DNA together
Covalent bonds- between sugar & phosphates of 2 nucleotides
Hydrogen bonds- between complementary nitrogenous bases –

14. Structure & Function of Nitrogenous bases
Remember: 10 pairs bases per “turn” in staircase
Complementary base pairing
a. Adenine always bonds with Thymine (AT)
b. Guanine always bonds with Cytosine (GC)
Note 3 hydrogen bonds: GC
2 Hydrogen bonds: AT

15. Purines (A, G) double C ring
Pyrimidines (T, C) single C ring
Must have 1 purine (2 rings) plus 1 pyriomidine (1 ring) in each pair or the would not “fit” inside ladder of DNA

16. DNA Replication
Is the process by which DNA is copied in a cell before a cell divides by mitosis, meiosis or binary fission.

17. Steps in Replication
1. Helicase enzymes -separate hydrogen bonds in strands – create replication fork
2. Attach- DNA polymerase enzyme -adds nucleotides
3. Release –DNA polymerase enzyme – now have 2 identical DNA strands
oak.cats.ohiou.edu/.../Heredity/Heredity.htm

18. Mutation- a change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule.
Errors
DNA replication is very accurate.
Errors occur ~ 1 in 1 billion paired nucleotides.
“Proofreading” enzyme checks for “spelling” errors.
*If a mistake does occur- new DNA is different:
Mutation- a change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule.
Caused by chemicals, radiation,UV rays.
Mutations can be favorable
- or harmful. (example- cancer)

19. Genes may only take up about 5% of the DNA in humans
Some of The DNA molecule is
called “junk DNA”- because scientists
don’t really understand why it is there.
Mutations that occur on the green may
not cause any affect at all.
Recently in the news -scientists
think a “mutation” from 5 million
years ago in our DNA appears to have a role in a rapid
tripling of the size of the human brain's crucial cerebral
cortex that sets us apart from less intelligent
organisms.

20. Flow of Information (DNA – RNA - Proteins)
Protein Synthesis
Flow of Information (DNA – RNA - Proteins)
Before protein can be synthesized, the instructions in DNA must first be copied to another type of nucleic acid called messenger RNA.
Then a group of 3 nucleic acids codes for an amino acid & it is built at the ribosomal RNA with help from the transfer RNA

21. RNA differs from DNA in the following ways:
RNA is single stranded while DNA is double stranded.
RNA has a sugar called ribose while DNA has a sugar called deoxyribose.
RNA has the nitrogenous base uracil while DNA has the base thymine.

22. B. 3 types RNA: 1. messenger RNA(mRNA) 2. transfer RNA (tRNA)
3. ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

23. Messenger RNA, or mRNA. Transfer RNA or tRNA. Ribosomal RNA or rRNA
carries the code for building a protein from the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. It acts
as a messenger.
Transfer RNA or tRNA.
picks up specific amino acids in the cytoplasm &
brings them into position on ribosome where
they are joined together in specific order to
make a specific protein.
Ribosomal RNA or rRNA
place for protein synthesis

24. Steps in Transcription-making RNA
1. RNA polymerase (enzyme)– binds to promoter area on DNA
2. Nucleotides added & joined by the enzyme (RNA polymerase)
Termination signal- stop- RNA polymerase releases both DNA & new RNA molecules

26. Proteins Review of protein structure
-recall that proteins are made of amino acids joined together with peptide bonds
-there are 20 different amino acids, the order they are joined determines the structure & function of the proteins.
-proteins can be very large, complicated molecules

27. mRNA codons for specific amino acids
Each 3 nucleotide sequence (letters) in mRNA encodes for 1 specific amino acid, or a “start” or “stop” signal.
Each 3 nucleotide group is called a codon.
The genetic code- means the rules that relate how a particular sequence of nitrogenous bases corresponds to a particular amino acid.

29. teachline.ls.huji.ac.il/72693/weekly2.html

30. Steps in Translation Initiation- tRNA & mRNA join together.
(The codon is on the mRNA, the “anticodon” is on tRNA)
The tRNA has an amino acid attached to it)
Elongation- continued as ribosome moves the distance of 1 codon on mRNA
Elongation is built with new tRNAs attaching each amino acid as it reads the codons on the mRNA.
Termination- ribosome reaches “stop” codon on the mRNA
Disassembly – each piece is free.

31. The Human Genome Project
GOALS: ( )
identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA,
determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA,
store this information in databases,
improve tools for data analysis,
transfer related technologies to the private sector, and
address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.
With a partner- make a list of the ethical, legal, and social issues you think could arise from the project.