1. Chemistry: Atoms First Julia Burdge & Jason Overby
Chapter 8.1, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4 and 8.2
Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Kent L. McCorkle
Cosumnes River College
Sacramento, CA
Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. Chemical Equations
8.1
A chemical equation uses chemical symbols to denote what occurs in a chemical reaction.
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
Ammonia and hydrogen chloride react to produce ammonium chloride.
Each chemical species that appears to the left of the arrow is called a reactant.
Each species that appears to the right of the arrow is called a product.

3. Interpreting and Writing Chemical Equations
Labels are used to indicate the physical state:
(g) gas
(l) liquid
(s) solid
(aq) aqueous [dissolved in water]
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

4. Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical equations must be balanced so that the law of conservation of mass is obeyed.
Balancing is achieved by writing stoichiometric coefficients to the left of the chemical formulas.

5. Balancing Chemical Equations
Generally, it will facilitate the balancing process if you do the following:
Change the coefficients of compounds before changing the coefficients of elements.
Treat polyatomic ions that appear on both sides of the equation as units.
Count atoms and/or polyatomic ions carefully, and track their numbers each time you change a coefficient.

6. Balancing Chemical Equations
Write the balanced chemical equation that represents the combustion of propane.
Solution:
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation:
C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Step 2: Leaving O2 until the end, balance each of the atoms:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Step 3: Double check to make sure there are equal numbers of each type on atom on both sides of the equation.

7. Ba(OH)2(aq) + HClO4(aq) → Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Worked Example 8.1
Write and balance the chemical equation for the aqueous reaction of barium hydroxide and perchloric acid to produce aqueous barium perchlorate and water.
Strategy The reactants are Ba(OH)2 and HClO4, and the products are Ba(ClO4)2 and H2O. Because the reaction is aqueous, all species except H2O will be labeled (aq) in the equation. Being a liquid, H2O will be labeled (l). Adjust the coefficients to ensure that there are identical numbers of each type of atom on both sides of the reaction arrow.
Solution The chemical statement “barium hydroxide and perchloric acid react to produce barium perchlorate and water” can be represented with the following unbalanced equation:
Ba(OH)2(aq) + HClO4(aq) → Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Perchlorate ions (ClO4-) appear on both sides of the equation, so count them as units, rather than count the individual atoms they contain. Thus, the tally of atoms and polyatomic ions is

8. Worked Example 8.1 (cont.) Solution (cont.)
Ba(OH)2(aq) + HClO4(aq) → Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + H2O(l)
1 – Ba – 1
2 – O – 1
3 – H – 2
1 – ClO4- – 2
The barium atoms are already balanced, and placing a coefficient of 2 in front of HClO4(aq) balances the number of perchlorate ions.
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HClO4(aq) → Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + H2O(l)
4 – H – 2
2 – ClO4- – 2
(not including O atoms in ClO4- ions)
(not including O atoms in ClO4- ions)

9. Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HClO4(aq) → Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Worked Example 8.1 (cont.)
Solution (cont.)
Placing a 2 in front of H2O(l) balances both the O and H atoms, giving us the final balanced equation:
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HClO4(aq) → Ba(ClO4)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1 – Ba – 1
2 – O – 2
4 – H – 4
2 – ClO4- – 2
(not including O atoms in ClO4- ions)
Think About It Check to be sure the equation is balanced by counting all the atoms individually.
1 – Ba – 1
10 – O – 10
4 – H – 4
2 – Cl – 2

10. Worked Example 8.2
Butyric acid (also known as butanoic acid, C4H8O2) is one of many compounds found in milk fat. First isolated from rancid butter in 1869, burtyic acid has received a great deal of attention in recent years as a potential anticancer agent. Write a balanced equation for the metabolism of butyric acid. Assume that the overall process of metabolism and combustion are the same (i.e., reaction with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water).
Strategy Begin by writing an unbalanced equation to represent the combination of reactants and formation of products as stated in the problem, and then balance the equation.

11. Worked Example 8.2 (cont.) Solution
C4H8O2(aq) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Balance the number of C atoms by changing the coefficient for CO2 from 1 to 4.
C4H8O2(aq) + O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Balance the number of H atoms by changing the coefficient for H2O from 1 to 4.
C4H8O2(aq) + O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Finally, balance the number of O atoms by changing the coefficient for O2 from 1 to 5.
C4H8O2(aq) + 5O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
Think About It Count the number of each type of atom on each side of the reaction arrow to verify that the equation is properly balanced. The are 4 C, 8 H, and 12 O in the reactants and in the products, so the equations is balanced.

12. Patterns of Chemical Reactivity
Three of the most commonly encountered reaction types are combination, decomposition, and combustion.
Combination – two or more reactants combine to form a single product
NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)
Decomposition – two or more products form from a single reactant
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Combustion – a substance burns in the presence of oxygen. Combustion of a compound that contains C and H (or C, H, and O) produces carbon dioxide gas and water.
CH2O(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) Δ

13. Worked Example 8.3
Determine whether each of the following equations represents a combination reaction, a decomposition reaction, or a combustion reaction:
(a) H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g), (b) 2HCO2H(l) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l),
(c) 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g).
Strategy The equation in part (a) depicts two reactants and one product. The equation in part (b) represents a combination of a compound containing C, H, and O–with O2–to produce CO2 and H2O. The equation in part (c) represents two products being formed from a single reactant.
Solution These equations represent (a) a combination reaction, (b) a combustion reaction, and (c) a decomposition reaction.
Think About It Make sure that a reaction identified as combination has only one product [as in part (a)], a reaction identified as combustion consumes O2 and produces CO2 and H2O [as in part (b)], and a reaction identified as a decomposition has only one reactant [as in part (c)].

14. General Properties of Aqueous Solutions
9.1
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances.
The substance present in the largest amount (moles) is referred to as the solvent.
The other substances present are called the solutes.
A substance that dissolves in a particular solvent is said to be soluble in that solvent.

15. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
An electrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that conducts electricity.
An electrolyte undergoes dissociation and breaks apart into its constituent ions.
NaCl(s)
Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H2O

16. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that does not conduct electricity.
The sucrose molecules remain intact upon dissolving.
C12H22O11(s)
C12H22O11(aq)
H2O

17. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
An electrolyte that dissociates completely
is known as a strong electrolyte.
Water soluble ionic compounds
Strong Acids
Strong Bases
NaCl(s)
Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H2O
HCl(g)
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H2O
NaOH(s)
Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O

18. Aqueous Solutions

19. Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
A weak electrolyte is a compound that produces ions upon dissolving but exists in solution predominantly as molecules that are not ionized.
Weak Acids
Weak Bases
HC2H3O2(l)
H+(aq) + C2H3O2 (aq) –
NH4(aq) + OH–(aq)
NH3(g) + H2O(l) +

20. Strong Electrolytes and Weak Electrolytes
The double arrow, , denotes a reaction that occurs in both directions.
When both the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, the reaction is in a state of dynamic chemical equilibrium.

21. Worked Example 9.1
Sports drinks typically contain sucrose (C12H22O11), fructose (C6H12O6), sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7), potassium citrate (K3C6H5O7), and ascorbic acid (H2C6H6O6), among other ingredients. Classify each of these ingredients as a nonelectrolyte, a weak electrolyte, or a strong electrolyte.
Think About It Remember that any soluble ionic compound is a strong electrolyte, whereas most molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes or weak electrolytes. The only molecular compounds that are strong electrolytes are the strong acids listed in Table 9.1.
Strategy Identify each compound as ionic or molecular; identify each molecular compound as acid, base, or neither; and identify each acid as strong or weak. Sucrose and fructose contain no cations and are therefore molecular compounds–neither is an acid or a base. Sodium citrate and potassium citrate contain metal cations and are therefore ionic comopunds. Ascorbic acid is an acid that does not appear on the list of strong acids in Table 9.1, so ascorbic acid is a weak acid.
Solution Sucrose and fructose are nonelectrolytes. Sodium citrate and potassium citrate are strong electrolytes. Ascorbic acid is a weak electrolyte.

22. Precipitation Reactions
9.2
An insoluble product that separates from a solution is called a precipitate.
2NaI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)
PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

23. Precipitation Reactions
A chemical reaction in which a precipitate forms is called a precipitation reaction.

24. Precipitation Reactions
Water is a good solvent for ionic compounds because it is a polar molecule.
The polarity of water results from electron distributions within the molecule.
The oxygen atom has an attraction for the hydrogen atoms’ electrons and is therefore partially negative compared to hydrogen.
The oxygen atom is partially negative
 –
 +
 +
The hydrogen atoms are partially positive

25. Precipitation Reactions
Hydration occurs when water molecules remove the individual ions from an ionic solid surrounding them so the substances dissolves.

26. Precipitation Reactions
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature.

27. Worked Example 9.2
Classify each of the following compounds as soluble or insoluble in water: (a) AgNO3, (b) CaSO4, (c) K2CO3.
Strategy Use the guidelines in Tables 9.2 and 9.3 to determine whether or not each compound is expected to be water soluble.
Solution (a) Soluble, (b) Insoluble, (c) Soluble.
Think About It Check the ions in each compound against the information in Tables 9.2 and 9.3 to confirm that you have drawn the right conclusion.

28. Precipitation Reactions
In a molecular equation compounds are represented by chemical formulas as though they exist in solution as molecules or formula units.
Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)
2NaOH(aq) + BaSO4(s)

29. Precipitation Reactions
In the reaction between aqueous Na2SO4and Ba(OH)2
the aqueous species are represented as follows:
In an ionic equation compounds that exist completely or predominately as ions in solution are represented as those ions.
Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)
2NaOH(aq) + BaSO4(s)
Na2SO4(aq) → 2Na+(aq) + SO4 (aq) 2–
Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
2Na+(aq) + SO4 (aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
2Na+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + BaSO4(s) 2–

30. Precipitation Reactions
An equation that includes only the species that are actually involved in the reaction is called a net ionic equation.
Ions that appear on both sides of the equation are called spectator ions.
Spectator ions do not participate in the reaction.
2Na+(aq) + SO4 (aq) + Ba2+(aq) +2OH–(aq)
2Na+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) + BaSO4(s) 2–
Ba2+(aq) + SO4 (aq)
BaSO4(s) 2–

31. Precipitation Reactions
To determine the molecular, ionic and net ionic equations:
Write and balance the molecular equation, predicting the products by assuming that the cations trade anions.
Write the ionic equation by separating strong electrolytes into their constituent ions.
Write the net ionic equation by identifying and canceling spectator ions on both sides of the equation.
If both the reactants and products are all strong electrolytes, all the ions in solution are spectator ions. In this case, there is no net ionic equation and no reaction takes place.

32. Worked Example 9.3
Write the molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations fro the reaction that occurs when aqueous solutions of lead acetate [Pb(C2H3O2)2], and calcium chloride (CaCl2), are combined.
Think About It Remember that the charges on ions in a compound must sum to zero. Make sure that you have written correct formulas for the products and that each of the equations you have written is balanced. If you find that you are having trouble balancing an equation, check to make sure you have correct formulas for the products.
Strategy Predict the products by exchanging ions and balance the equation. Determine which product will precipitate based on the solubility guidelines in Tables 9.2 and 9.3. Rewrite the equation showing strong electrolytes as ions. Identify and cancel spectator ions.
Solution
Molecular equation:
Pb(C2H3O2)2(aq)+ CaCl2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + Ca(C2H3O2)2(aq)
Ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2C2H3O2-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → PbCl2(s) + Ca2+(aq) + 2C2H3O2-(aq)
Net ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → PbCl2(s)

33. 9.6 Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
Gravimetric analysis is an analytical technique based on the measurement of mass.
Gravimetric analysis is highly accurate.
Applicable only to reactions that go to completion or have nearly 100 % yield.

34. Worked Example 9.12
A g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride ions and an unknown metal cation is dissolved in water and treated with an excess of AgNO3. If g of AgCl precipitate forms, what is the percent by mass of Cl in the original sample?
Strategy Using the mass of AgCl precipitate and the percent composition of AgCl, determine what mass of chloride the precipitate contains. The chloride in the precipitate was originallly in the unknown compound. Using the mass of chloride and the mass of the original sample, determine the percent Cl in the compound.
Setup To determine the percent Cl in AgCl, divide the molar mass of Cl by the molar mass of AgCl:
The mass of Cl in the precipitate is × g = g.
34.45 g
(34.35 g g)
× 100% = 24.72%

35. Worked Example 9.12 (cont.)
Solution The percent Cl in the unknown compound is the mass of Cl in the precipitate divided by the mass of the original sample: g g
× 100% = 44.71%
Think About It Pay close attention to which numbers correspond to which quantities. It is easy in this type of problem to lose track of which mass is the precipitate and which is the original sample. Dividing by the wrong mass at the end will result in an incorrect sample.

36. 9.3 Acid-Base Reactions Acids can be either strong or weak.
A strong acid is a strong electrolyte.

37. A weak acid is a weak electrolyte; it does not dissociate completely.
Acid-Base Reactions
A weak acid is a weak electrolyte; it does not dissociate completely.
Acetic acid, HC2H3O2, is an example.
Most acids are weak acids.
HC2H3O2(l)
H+(aq) + C2H3O2 (aq) –
acidic proton

38. Strong bases are strong electrolytes (dissociate completely).
Acid-Base Reactions
Strong bases are strong electrolytes (dissociate completely).
Strong bases are the hydroxides of Group 1A and heavy Group 2A.
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is an example.
NaOH(s)
Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O

39. An Arrhenius acid is one that ionizes in water to produce H+ ions.
Acid-Base Reactions
An Arrhenius acid is one that ionizes in water to produce H+ ions.
An Arrhenius base is one that dissociates in water to produce OH– ions.
HCl(g)
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
H2O
NaOH(s)
Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O

40. A Brønsted acid is a proton donor.
Acid-Base Reactions
A Brønsted acid is a proton donor.
A Brønsted base is a proton acceptor.
In these definitions, a proton refers to a hydrogen atom that has lost its electron—also known as a hydrogen ion (H+).
NH3(g) + H2O(l)
NH4(aq) + OH–(aq) +
NH3 is a Brønsted base:
accepts a proton to become NH4 +
H2O is a Brønsted acid:
donates a proton to become OH–

41. Acid-Base Reactions
Brønsted acids donate protons to water to form the hydronium ion (H3O+).
hydrogen ion (H+)
proton
hydronium ion (H3O+)
All refer to the same aqueous species

42. one equivalent of solvated hydrogen ion
Acid-Base Reactions
A monoprotic acid has one proton to donate.
Hydrochloric acid is an example:
HCl(g)
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
one equivalent of solvated hydrogen ion

43. A polyprotic acid has more than one acidic hydrogen atom.
Acid-Base Reactions
A polyprotic acid has more than one acidic hydrogen atom.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is an example of a diprotic acid; there are two acidic hydrogen atoms.
Polyprotic acids lose protons in a stepwise fashion:
H2SO4(aq)
H+(aq) + HSO4 (aq) –
Step 1:
In H2SO4, the first ionization is strong. –
HSO4(aq)
H+(aq) + SO4 (aq) 2–
Step 2:
In H2SO4, the second ionization occurs only to a very small extent.

44. one equivalent of hydroxide
Acid-Base Reactions
Bases that produce only one mole of hydroxide per mole of compound are called monobasic.
Sodium hydroxide is an example:
NaOH(s)
Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O
one equivalent of hydroxide

45. two equivalents of hydroxide
Acid-Base Reactions
Some strong bases produce more than one hydroxide per mole of compound.
Barium hydroxide is an example of a dibasic base.
Ba(OH)2(s)
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
H2O
two equivalents of hydroxide

46. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Acid-Base Neutralization
A neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base.
Generally, a neutralization reaction produces water and a salt.
HCl(aq) NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) NaCl(aq)
The net ionic equation of many acid-base reactions is:
acid
base
water
salt
H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O(l)

47. Worked Example 9.4
Milk of magnesia, an over-the-counter laxative, is a mixture of magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] and water. Because Mg(OH)2 is insoluble in water (see Table 9.3), milk of magnesia is a suspension rather than a solution. The undissolved solid is responsible for the milky appearance of the product. When acid such as HCl is added to milk of magnesia, the suspended Mg(OH)2 dissolves, and the result is a clear, colorless solution. Write balanced molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations for this reaction.

48. Worked Example 9.4 (cont.)
Strategy Determine the products of the reaction; then write and balance the equation. Remember that one of the reactants, Mg(OH)2, is a solid. Identify any strong electrolytes and rewrite the equation showing strong electrolytes as ions. Identify and cancel the spectator ions.
Think About It Make sure your equation is balanced and that you only show strong electrolytes as ions. Mg(OH)2 is not shown as aqueous ions because it is insoluble.
Solution
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
Of the species in the molecular equation, only HCl and MgCl2 are strong electrolytes. Therefore, the ionic equation is
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Cl- is the only spectator ion. The net ionic equation is
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l) + Mg2+(aq)

49. Acid-Base Titrations
Quantitative studies of acid-base neutralization reactions are most conveniently carried out using a technique known as a titration.
A titration is a volumetric technique that uses burets.
The point in the titration where the acid has been neutralized is called the equivalence point.

50. Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
The equivalence point is usually signalled by a color change.
The color change is brought about by the use of an indicator.
Indicators have distinctly different colors in acidic and basic media.
The indicator is chosen so that the color change, or endpoint, is very close to the equivalence point.
Phenolphthalein is a common indicator.

51. Aqueous Reactions and Chemical Analysis
Sodium hydroxide solutions are commonly used in titrations.
NaOH solutions must be standardized as the concentrations change over time. (NaOH reacts with CO2 that slowly dissolves into the solution forming carbonic acid.)
The acid potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) is frequently used to standardize NaOH solutions.
acidic proton of KHP;
KHP is a monoprotic acid

52. Worked Example 9.13
In a titration experiment, a student finds that mL of an NaOH solution is needed to neutralize g of KHP. What is the concentration (in M) of the NaOH solution?
Strategy Using the mass given and the molar mass of KHP, determine the number of moles of KHP. Recognize that the number of moles of NaOH in the volume given is equal to the number of moles of KHP. Divide moles of NaOH by volume (in liters) to get molarity.
The molar mass of KHP (KHC8H4O4) = [39.1 g + 5(1.008 g) + 8(12.01 g) + 4(16.00 g)] = g/mol. g
204.1 g/mol
Solution moles of KHP =
Because moles of KHP = moles of NaOH, then moles of NaOH = mol.
molarity of NaOH =
= mol
mol L
= M

53. Worked Example 9.13 (cont.)
Think About It Remember that molarity can also be defined as mmol/mL. Try solving the problem again using millimoles and make sure you get the same answer.
mol = 3.495×10-3 mol
= mmol
and
3.495 mmol
25.49 mL
= M

54. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Worked Example 9.14
What volume (in mL) of a M NaOH solution is needed to neutralize mL of a M H2SO4 solution?
Strategy First, write and balance the chemical equation that corresponds to the neutralization reaction:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
The base and the diprotic acid combine in a 2:1 ratio: 2NaOH ≈ H2SO4. Use the molarity and the volume given to determine the number of millimoles of H2SO4. Use the number of millimoles of H2SO4 to determine the number of millimoles of NaOH. Using millimoles of NaOH and the concentration given, determine the volume of NaOH that will contain the correct number of millimoles.

55. Worked Example 9.14 (cont.)
Solution millimoles of H2SO4 = M × 25.0 mL = 4.70 mmol
millimoles of NaOH required = 4.70 mmol H2SO4 ×
volume of M NaOH = 9.40 mmol NaOH ×
2 mmol NaOH
1 mmol H2SO4
= 9.40 mmol NaOH
1 mL NaOH
0.203 mmol NaOH
= 46.3 mL
Think About It Notice that the two concentrations M and M are similar. Both round to the same value (~0.20 M) to two significant figures. Therefore, the titration of a diprotic acid with a monobasic base of roughly equal concentration should require roughly twice as much base as the beginning volume of acid 2 × 25.0 mL ≈ 46.3 mL.

56. Worked Example 9.15
A g sample of a monoprotic acid is dissolved in 25 mL water, and the resulting solution is titrated with M NaOH solution. A 12.5-mL volume of the base is required to neutralize the acid. Calculate the molar mass of the acid.
Think About It In order for this technique to work, we must know whether the acid is monoprotic, diprotic, or polyprotic. A diprotic acid, for example, would combine in a 1:2 ratio with the base, and the result would have been a molar mass twice as large.
Strategy Because the acid is monoprotic, it will react 1:1 ratio with the base; therefore, the number of moles of acid will be equal to the number of moles of base. The volume of base in liters is L. L
mol/L
Solution moles of base =
Because moles of base = moles of acid, the moles of acid = mol. Therefore,
molar mass of the acid =
= mol g
mol
= 88.1 g/mol

57. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
9.4
An oxidation-reduction (or redox) reaction is a chemical reaction in which electrons are transferred from one reactant to another.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Zn(s) Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) Cu(s)
Zn metal loses 2 electrons and is oxidized to Zn2+
Zn2+ is called the reducing agent
Cu2+ gains 2 electrons and is
reduced to Cu metal
Cu is called the oxidizing agent

58. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Zn(s) Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) Cu(s)

59. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
A redox reaction is the sum of an oxidation half-reaction and a reduction half-reaction.
Oxidation (lose 2e–)
Zn(s) Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) Cu(s)
Reduction (gain 2e–)
Oxidation half-reaction:
Zn(s)
Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
Reduction half-reaction:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
Cu(s)
Overall redox reaction:
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s)
Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

60. H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
Oxidation Numbers
The oxidation number is the charge an atom would have if electrons were transferred completely.
The oxidation number is sometimes called the oxidation state.
H2(g) F2(g) → HF(g) +1 –1
Oxidation number:
Total contribution to charge: +1 –1
N2(g) H2(g) → NH3(g) –3 +1
Oxidation number:
Total contribution to charge: –3 +3

61. Oxidation Numbers
To assign oxidation numbers:
The oxidation number of an element, in its elemental form, is zero.
The oxidation numbers in any chemical species must sum to the overall charge on the species.
must sum to zero for any molecule
must sum to the charge on any polyatomic ion
the oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion

62. Oxidation Numbers
To assign oxidation numbers:
Know the elements that nearly always have the same oxidation number.

63. Assign the oxidation numbers to the elements in the compound KMnO4.
Step 1: Start with the oxidation numbers you know:
Step 2: The numbers in the boxes (total contribution to charge) must sum to zero (KMnO4 is a neutral compound).
K Mn O4
Oxidation number: +1 +7 –2
Total contribution to charge: +1 +7 –8

64. Assign the oxidation numbers to the elements in the compound H2SO4.
Step 1: Start with the oxidation numbers you know:
Step 2: The numbers in the boxes (total contribution to charge) must sum to zero (the chemical species is neutral).
H2 S O4
Oxidation number: +1 +6 –2
Total contribution to charge: +2 +6 –8

65. Assign the oxidation numbers to the elements in the ion ClO3. –
Assign the oxidation numbers to the elements in the ion ClO3.
Step 1: Start with the oxidation numbers you know:
Step 2: The numbers in the boxes (total contribution to charge) must sum to negative one (the chemical species is a –1 anion).
Cl O3 –
Oxidation number: +5 –2
Total contribution to charge: +5 –6

66. Worked Example 9.5
Determine the oxidation number of each atom in the following compounds and ion: (a) SO2, (b) NaH, (c) CO32-, (d) N2O5.
Strategy For each compound, assign an oxidation number first to the element that appears higher in Table 9.5. Then use rule 2 to determine the oxidation number of the other element.
Solution
(a) O appears in Table 9.5 but S does not, so we assign oxidation number -2 to O. Because there are two O atoms in the molecule, the total contribution to charge by O is 2(-2) = -4. The lone S atom must therefore contribute +4 to the overall charge.
SO2 +4 -2 +4 -4

67. Worked Example 9.5 (cont.) NaH CO32- Solution
(b) Both Na and H appear in Table 9.5, but Na appears higher in the table, so we assign the oxidation number +1 to Na. This means that H must contribute -1 to the overall charge.
NaH
(c) We assign the oxidation number -2 to O. Because there are three O atoms in the carbonate ion, the total contribution to charge by O is -6. To have the contributions to charge sum to the charge on the ion (-2), the C atom must contribute +4. +1 -1 +1 -1
CO32- +4 -2 +4 -6

68. Worked Example 9.5 (cont.) N2O5 Solution
(d) We assign the oxidation number -2 to O. Because there are five O atoms in the N2O5 molecule, the total contribution to charge by O is -10. To have the contributions to charge sum to zero, the contribution by N must be +10, and because there are two N atoms, each one must contribute +5. Therefore, the oxidation number of N is +5.
N2O5 +5 -2
+10
-10
Think About It Use the circle and square system to verify that the oxidation numbers you have assigned do indeed sum to the overall charge on each species.

69. Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
In a displacement reaction, an atom or an ion in a compound is replaced by an atom of another element.
Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s) +2 –1 +2 –1 +2 –2 +2 –2
Zinc displaces, or replaces copper in the dissolved salt.
Zn is oxidized to Zn2+.
Cu2+ is reduced to Cu.
When a metal is oxidized by an aqueous solution, it becomes an aqueous ion.

70. Increasing ease of oxidation
Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
The activity series is a list of metals (and hydrogen) arranged from top to bottom in order of decreasing ease of oxidation.
Metals listed at the top are called active metals.
Metals listed at the bottom are called noble metals.
An element in the series will be oxidized by the ions of any element that appears below it in the table.
Activity Series (partial)
Element
Oxidation Half-Reaction
Zinc
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
Iron
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–
Nickel
Ni → Ni2+ + 2e–
Hydrogen
H2 → 2H+ + 2e–
Copper
Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
Silver
Ag → Ag+ + e–
Gold
Au → Au3+ + 3e–
Increasing ease of oxidation
Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
Cu(s) + ZnCl2(aq) → no reaction

71. Increasing ease of oxidation
Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions
Which of the following reactions will occur?
Solution:
Activity Series (partial) ?
Co(s) + BaI2(aq)
Element
Oxidation Half-Reaction
Barium
Ba → Ba2+ + 2e–
Sodium
Na → Na+ + e–
Cobalt
Co → Co2+ + 2e–
Tin
Sn → Sn2+ + 2e–
Copper
Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
Silver
Ag → Ag+ + e–
Gold
Au → Au3+ + 3e–
Increasing ease of oxidation ?
Sn(s) + CuBr2(aq) ?
Ag(s) + NaCl(aq)
No reaction. Cobalt is below barium.
Co(s) + BaI2(aq)
Cu(s) + SnBr2(aq)
Sn(s) + CuBr2(aq)
No reaction. Silver is below sodium.
Ag(s) + NaCl(aq)

72. Oxidation of Metals in Aqueous Solutions

73. Cr(s) + Ni2+(aq) → Cr3+(aq) + Ni(s)
Balancing Simple Redox Equations
Redox reactions must have both mass balance and charge balance.
Before adding half-reactions, the electrons must balance.
Cr(s) + Ni2+(aq) → Cr3+(aq) + Ni(s)
Cr(s)
Cr3+(aq) + 3e–
Oxidation half-reaction:
Ni(s)
Ni2+(aq) + 2e–
Reduction half-reaction:

74. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Prior to adding the two half-reactions, balance the electrons.
Step 1: Multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 2
Step 2: Multiply the reduction half-reaction by 3
This is known as the half-reaction method.
Cr(s)
Cr3+(aq) + 3e–
Oxidation half-reaction: 2
Ni(s)
Ni2+(aq) + 2e–
Reduction half-reaction: 3
2Cr(s)
2Cr3+(aq) + 6e–
Oxidation half-reaction:
3Ni(s)
3Ni2+(aq) + 6e–
Reduction half-reaction:
3Ni(s) + 2Cr3+(aq)
3Ni2+(aq) + 2Cr(s)

75. Fe(s) + Pt2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Pt(s)
Worked Example 9.6
Using the activity series, predict which of the following reactions will occur, and for those that will occur, write the net ionic equation and indicate which element is oxidized and which is reduced: (a) Fe(s) + PtCl2(aq) → ?, (b) Cr(s) + AuCl3(aq) → ?, (c) Pb(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq) → ?
Strategy Recognize that the salt in each equation (the compound on the reactant side) is a strong electrolyte. What is important is the identity of the metal cation in the salt. If the cation appears lower in the table, the solid metal will be oxidized (i.e., the reactions will occur). If the cation appears higher in the table, the solid metal will not be oxidized (i.e., no reaction will occur).
Solution
The cation in PtCl2 is Pt2+. Platinum appears lower in Table 9.6 than iron, so Pt2+(aq) will oxidize Fe(s).
Fe(s) + Pt2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Pt(s)
Iron is oxidized (0 to +2) and platinum is reduced (+2 to 0).

76. Cr(s) + Au3+ (aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + Au(s)
Worked Example 9.6 (cont.)
Solution
The cation in AuCl3 is Au3+. Gold appears lower in Table 9.6 than chromium, so Au3+(aq) will oxidize Cr(s).
Cr(s) + Au3+ (aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + Au(s)
Chromium is oxidized (0 to +3) and gold is reduced (+3 to 0).
The cation in Zn(NO3)2 is Zn2+. Zinc appears higher in Table 9.6 than lead, so Zn2+(aq) will not oxidize Pb(s).
Think About It Check your conclusions by working each problem backward. For part (b), for example, write the net ionic equation in reverse, using the same products as reactants: Au(s) + Cr3+(aq) → ? Now compare the positions of gold and chromium in Table 9.6 again. Chromium is higher, so chromium(III) ions cannot oxidize gold. This confirms your conclusion that the forward reaction (the oxidation of chromium by gold ions) will occur.

77. Worked Example 9.7
Predict which of the following reactions will occur, and for those that will occur, balance the equation and indicate which element is oxidized and which is reduced: (a) Al(s) + CaCl2(aq) → ? (b) Cr(s) + Pb(C2H3O2)2(aq) → (c) Sn(s) + HI(aq) → ?
Strategy (a) The cation in CaCl2 is Ca2+. Calcium appears higher in Table 9.6 than aluminum, so Ca2+(aq) will not oxidize Al(s). (b) The cation in Pb(C2H3O2)2 is Pb2+. Lead appears lower in Table 9.6 than chromium, so Pb2+(aq) will oxidize Cr(s). (c) The cation in HI is H+. Hydrogen appears lower in Table 9.6 than tin, so H+(aq) will oxidize Sn(s).
Solution
No reaction.

78. Worked Example 9.7 (cont.) Solution
The two half-reactions are represented by the following:
Oxidation: Cr(s) → Cr3+ (aq) + 3e-
Reduction: Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)
In order to balance the charges, we must multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 2 and the reduction half-reaction by 3:
2×[Cr(s) → Cr3+ (aq) + 3e-] = 2Cr(s) → 2Cr3+ (aq) + 6e-
3×[Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)] = 3Pb2+(aq) + 6e- → 3Pb(s)
We can then add the two half-reactions, canceling the electrons on both sides to get
2Cr(s) + 3Pb2+(aq) → 2Cr3+ (aq) + 3Pb(s)
The overall balanced molecular equation is
2Cr(s) + 3Pb(C2H3O2)2(aq) → 2Cr(C2H3O2)3(aq) + 3Pb(s)
Chromium is oxidized (0 to +3) and lead is reduced (+2 to 0).

79. Worked Example 9.7 (cont.) Solution
The two half-reactions are as follows:
Oxidation: Sn(s) → Sn2+ (aq) + 2e-
Reduction: 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
Adding the two half-reactions and canceling the electrons on both sides yields
Sn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Sn2+ (aq) + H2(g)
The overall balanced molecular equation is
Sn(s) + 2HI(aq) → SnI2(aq) + H2(g)
Tin is oxidized (0 to +2) and hydrogen is reduced (+1 to 0). Reactions in which hydrogen ion is reduced to hydrogen gas are known as hydrogen displacement reactions.
Think About It Check your conclusions by working each problem backward. Write each equation in reverse and compare the positions of the elements in the activity series.

80. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Combination reactions can involve oxidation and reduction.
Hydrogen is oxidized from 0 to +1.
Nitrogen is reduced from 0 to –3.
N2(g) H2(g) → NH3(g) –3 +1 –3 +3

81. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Decomposition can also be a redox reaction.
Na+ is reduced to Na.
H– is oxidized to H2.
NaH(s) → Na(s) H2(g) +1 –1 +1 –1

82. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Disproportionation reactions occur when one element undergoes both oxidation and reduction.
Oxygen in H2O2 (and other peroxides) has an oxidation number of –1.
oxidation
reduction
2H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) O2(g) +1 –1 +1 –2 +2 –2 +2 –2

83. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Combustion is also a redox process.
CH4(g) O2(g) → CO2(g) H2O(l) –4 +1 +4 –2 +1 –2 –4 +4 +4 –4 +2 –2

84. Combustion Analysis
8.2
The experimental determination of an empirical formula is carried out by combustion analysis.

85. Combustion Analysis
In the combustion of 18.8 g of glucose, 27.6 g of CO2 and 11.3 g of H2O are produced.
It is possible to determine the mass of carbon and hydrogen in the original sample as follows:
The remaining mass is oxygen:
18.8 g glucose – (7.53 g C g H) = 10.0 g O

86. Combustion Analysis
It is now possible to calculate
the empirical formula.
Step 1: Determine the number of moles of each element.
Step 2: Write the empirical formula and divide by the smallest subscript to find the whole number ratio.
C0.627H1.25O0.626 simplifies to CH2O

87. Combustion Analysis The molecular formula may be
determined from the empirical
formula if the approximate
molecular mass is known.
To determine the molecular formula, divide the molar mass by the empirical formula mass.
For glucose:
Empirical formula: CH2O
Empirical formula mass: [12.01 g/mol + 2(1.008 g/mol) g/mol] ≈ 30 g/mol
Molecular mass: 180 g/mol
Molecular mass/Empirical mass: 180/30 = 6
Molecular formula = [CH2O] x 6 = C6H12O6

88. Worked Example 8.4
Combustion of a 5.50-g sample of benzene produces g CO2 and 3.81 g H2O. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of benzene, given that its molar mass is approximately 78 g/mol.
Strategy Determine the mass of C and H in the 5.50-g sample of benzene. Sum these masses and subtract from the original sample mass to find the mass of O. Convert the mass of each sample to moles, and use the results as subscripts in a chemical formula. Convert the subscripts to whole numbers by dividing each number by the smallest subscript to obtain the empirical formula. To calculate the molecular formula, first divide the molar mass given in the problem by the empirical formula mass. Then, multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by the resulting number to obtain the subscripts in the molecular formula.

89. Worked Example 8.4 (cont.)
Solution We calculate the mass of carbon and the mass of hydrogen in the products (and therefore the original 5.50-g sample) as follows:
The total mass of products is g g = g. Because the combined masses of C and H account for the entire mass of the original sample (5.499 ≈ 5.50 g), this compound must not contain O.
1 mol CO2
44.01 g CO2
1 mol C
1 mol CO2
12.01 g C
1 mol C
mass of C = g CO2 × × ×
= g C
1 mol H2O
44.01 g H2O
1 mol H
1 mol H2O
1.008 g H
1 mol H
mass of H = 3.81 g H2O × × ×
= g C

90. Worked Example 8.4 (cont.)
Solution Converting mass to moles for each element present in the compound,
gives the formula C0.4244H Converting the subscripts to whole numbers (0.4224/ ≈ 1; 0.423/ ≈ 1) gives the empirical formula CH.
Finally, dividing the approximate molar mass (78 g/mol) by the empirical molar mass (12.01 g/mol g/mol = g/mol) gives 78/13.02 ≈ 6. Then, multiplying both subscripts in the empirical formula by 6 gives the molecular formula C6H6.
1 mol C
12.01 g C
moles of C = g C ×
= mol C
1 mol H
12.01 g H
moles of H = 3.81 g H ×
= mol H
Think About It Use the molecular formula to determine the molar mass and make sure that the result agrees with the molar mass given in the problem. For C6H6, the molar mass is 6(12.01 g/mol) + 6(1.008 g/mol) = g/mol, which agrees with the 78 g/mol given in the problem statement.