1. Physical and Cognitive Development In Middle and Late Childhood
Chapter 9
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2. Chapter Outline Physical changes and health Children with disabilities
Cognitive changes
Language development
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3. Physical Changes and Health
Body growth and change
The brain
Motor development
Exercise
Health, illness, and disease
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4. Body Growth and Change Growth averages 2–3 inches per year
Weight gain averages 5–7 pounds a year
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5. The Brain Brain volume stabilizes
Significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the prefrontal cortex
Increases in cortical thickness
Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease
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6. Motor Development Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated
Boys outperform girls in gross motor skills involving large muscle activity
Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood due to increased myelination of the central nervous system
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7. Exercise Higher level of physical activity is linked to:
Lower level of metabolic disease risk based on measures :
Cholesterol, waist circumference, and insulin levels
Aerobic exercise benefits:
Children’s attention
Memory
Effortful and goal-directed thinking and behavior
Creativity
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8. Exercise Ways to get children to exercise
Offer physical activity programs school facilities
Improve physical fitness activities in schools
Have children plan community and school activities
Encourage families to focus more on physical activity
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9. Health, Illness, and Disease
Middle and late childhood is a time of excellent health
Accidents and injuries
Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injury
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10. Health, Illness, and Disease
Overweight children
Causes of children being overweight
Heredity and environmental contexts
Consequences of being overweight
Diabetes, hypertension, and elevated blood cholesterol levels
Intervention programs
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11. Health, Illness, and Disease
Cardiovascular disease
Uncommon in children but risk factors are present
Cancer
2nd leading cause of death in children 5–14 years old
Most common child cancer is leukemia
Children with cancer are surviving longer because of advancements in cancer treatment
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12. Figure 9.2 - Types of Cancer in Children
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13. Figure 9.3 - U.S. Children with a Disability Who Receive Special Education Services
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14. Children with Disabilities
The scope of disabilities
Educational issues
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15. The Scope of Disabilities
Learning disability: Difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling
Dyslexia: Severe impairment in the ability to read and spell
Dysgraphia: Difficulty in handwriting
Dyscalculia: Developmental arithmetic disorder
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16. The Scope of Disabilities
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Number of children diagnosed has increased substantially
Possible causes
Genetics
Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development
Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development
Low birth weight
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17. Figure Regions of the Brain in Which Children with ADHD had a Delayed Peak in the Thickness of the Cerebral Cortex
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18. The Scope of Disabilities
Emotional and behavioral disorders: Serious, persistent problems that involve:
Relationships, aggression, depression, and fears associated with personal or school matters
Inappropriate socioemotional characteristics
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19. The Scope of Disabilities
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD): Range from autistic disorder to Asperger syndrome
Autistic disorder: Onset in the first three years of life
Deficiencies in social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior
Asperger syndrome: Good verbal language skills
Milder nonverbal language problems
Restricted range of interests and relationships
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20. Educational Issues
Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Written statement that is specifically tailored for the disabled student
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): Setting that is as similar as possible to the one in which non-disabled children are educated
Inclusion: Educating a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom
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21. Figure 9. 7 - Percentage of U. S
Figure Percentage of U.S. Students with Disabilities 6 to 21 Years of Age Receiving Special Services in the General Classroom
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22. Cognitive Changes Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
Information processing
Intelligence
Extremes of intelligence
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23. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Concrete operational stage
Ages 7 to 11
Children can perform concrete operations and reason logically, and are able to classify things into different sets
Seriation: Ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension
Transitivity: Ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions
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24. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Evaluating Piaget’s concrete operational stage
Concrete operational abilities do not appear in synchrony
Education and culture exert strong influences on children’s development
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25. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
Neo-Piagetians: Argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision
Elaborated on Piaget’s theory, giving more emphasis to:
Information processing, strategies, and precise cognitive steps
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26. Figure 9.9 - Working Memory
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27. Information Processing
Long-term memory: Increases with age during middle and late childhood
Knowledge and expertise
Experts have acquired extensive knowledge about a particular content area
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28. Information Processing
Strategies: Deliberate mental activities that improve the processing of information
Elaboration
Engage in mental imagery
Understanding the material
Repeat with variation
Embed memory-relevant language
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29. Information Processing
Fuzzy trace theory: Considering two types of memory representations:
Verbatim memory trace
Gist
Thinking
Critical thinking: Reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence
Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible
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30. Information Processing
Creative thinking: Ability to think in novel and unusual ways
Come up with unique solutions to problems
Convergent thinking: Produces one correct answer
Kind of thinking tested by standardized intelligence tests
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31. Information Processing
Divergent thinking: Produces many answers to the same question
Creativity
Scientific thinking
Asking fundamental and identifying causal relations questions about reality
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32. Information Processing
Metacognition: Cognition about cognition
Metamemory - Knowledge about memory
Executive functioning
Self-control/inhibition
Working memory
Flexibility
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33. Intelligence
Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences
Individual differences: Stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other
Binet tests
Mental age (MA): Individual’s level of mental development relative to others
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34. Intelligence Wechsler Scales
Intelligence quotient (IQ): Person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100
Normal distribution: Symmetrical distribution
Most scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores
Few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range
Wechsler Scales
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35. Figure 9.11 - The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
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36. Figure Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (wisc-iv)
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37. Intelligence Types of intelligence
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
Analytical intelligence
Creative intelligence
Practical intelligence
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38. Intelligence Gardner’s eight frames of mind:
Verbal
Mathematical
Spatial
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
Evaluating multiple-intelligence approaches
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39. Intelligence Culture and intelligence
Interpreting differences in IQ scores
Influences of genetics
Environmental influences
Group differences
Culture-fair tests: Designed to be free of cultural bias
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40. Figure 9.13 - Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status
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41. Figure 9.15 - Sample Item from the Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test
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42. Intelligence Using intelligence tests
Avoid stereotyping and expectations
Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of competence
Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ score
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43. Extremes of Intelligence
Mental retardation: Limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ and has difficulty adapting to everyday life
Organic retardation: Caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage
Cultural-familial retardation: No evidence of organic brain damage
IQ is generally between 50 and 70
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44. Extremes of Intelligence
Gifted: Above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something
Three criteria
Precocity
Marching to their own drummer
A passion to master
Nature-nurture
Domain-specific giftedness and development
Education of children who are gifted
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45. Language Development Vocabulary, grammar, and metalinguistic awareness
Reading
Writing
Bilingualism and second-language learning
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46. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness
Middle and late childhood
Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized
Similar advances in grammar skills
Metalinguistic awareness: Knowledge about language
Understanding what a preposition is
Being able to discuss the sounds of a language
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47. Reading
Whole-language approach: Reading instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning
Phonics approach: Reading instruction should teach basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds
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48. Writing Parents and teachers should encourage children’s early writing
Not be concerned with the formation of letters or spelling
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49. Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning
Bilingualism has a positive effect on children’s cognitive development
Subtractive bilingualism
Bilingual education
Research supports bilingual education
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