1. Elizabeth Hoisington, Director WAC Anna Mae Hays, Chief Army Nurses
The First Generals 1970
Elizabeth Hoisington, Director WAC
Anna Mae Hays, Chief Army Nurses

2. Some A, B, Cs
Eighty-five per cent of the military are men and eighty-five per cent of military women are enlisted. Thus, women officers are a little over two per cent of those in uniform.
Every officer starts as an O-1 and moves through the ranks. It takes more than 20 years to even become eligible for a star
Evaluation for promotion follows a schedule and is an up or out system

3. Rules Change and Differ
The rules change over time. Women who enter at different times have different opportunities and different demands, e.g. sea duty rotation
The services offer different opportunities
Army
Navy……Marines
Air Force
Coast Guard

4. Civilian Influences Civil Rights Act of 1964 Equal Pay Act 1963
ERA passes Congress 1972
Concurrent majority ends the draft 1973
Court decisions
1973 Frontiero v Richardson
1976 Crawford v Cushman
1978 Owens v Brown

5. Equality Norm and “Use
The military knows it needs to respond to the new equality norm
The end of the draft means a new pool (women) for recruiting is welcomed
But how are women to be “used” if combat remains off the table

6. The Brass Ceiling
The giant step is colonel/captain (O-6)to general/admiral (O-7,8,9,10)
Percent of active duty officers who are women
Army 15%, Navy 15%, Air Force 18%, Marines 6%
Percent of women officers who are O-6s.(Many are nurses)
Army 12%, Navy 12%, Air Force 12%, Marines 3%

7. Small Numbers Total Authorized Generals and Admirals About 880
Total Women Generals or Admiral
About 55 or about 6%
Big fall off from roughly 12%
Particular rank goes with particular jobs; if not eligible for top jobs, not eligible for top rank

8. Intersectionality? Women Officers White 69% Black 17% Hispanic 5%
Others 9%
Women Generals and Admirals
White 87%, 9% Black, Others 4%

9. Promotion System
Central board considers “whole officer” based on fitness reports (and a picture)
Reviews are regular and based on time in service and time in rank
Some are promoted “below the zone”
Total number of generals and admirals set by law—a “vacancy” is required
Recommendations for senior rank are reviewed by the President and then go to the Senate for confirmation

10. Difficulties for Women
Navy and Air Force women eligible for combat less than 20 years
Ground combat still officially prohibited for Army and Marine women
Deployments--“Always ready”
Family
Majority of senior women have been or are married and around 30% have given birth

11. Conclusion
Nurses distort the picture. They are numerous but only the heads of each corps is likely to win a star
More and more women have the experience to be eligible for a star
Getting the right assignments and mentors are important
Women officers have supportive networks

12. Ann Dunwoody First Four Star
2009
Every Day Special Day