1. CHAPTER 4 & 5 LECTURE NOTES
CHE Module 4
CHAPTER 4 & 5
LECTURE NOTES

2. Stoichiometry & Balancing Equations
Stoichiometry & Balancing Equations
Remember we stated in the previous chapter that stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between the amounts of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
We use BALANCED equations to understand stoichiometric relationships of the elements and compounds within a chemical reaction.

3. The Balanced Equation 2 atoms of Al = 2 atoms of Al
The Balanced Equation
2Al(s) + 3Br2(l)  Al2Br6(s)
2mol of Al : 3mol of Br2 : 1mol of Al2Br6
2 atoms of Al = atoms of Al
6 atoms of Br = atoms of Br
The number of the same atom of each element must be equal on each side of the equation.

4. A Closer Look at the Equation
A Closer Look at the Equation
2Al(s) + 3Br2(l)  Al2Br6(s)
The chemicals on the left are the reactants and the right are the products.
The coefficient in front of the chemical denotes the stoichiometric relationship.
The numerical subscript represents the number of atoms present in the molecule.
The letter subscripted denotes the phase of matter.

5. Balancing Equations For example the following is balanced.
For example the following is balanced.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Try to balance the following:
Fe2S3 + O2  Fe2O3 + S
Al + H2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + H2
Ca + Al2Br6  CaBr2 + Al

6. Balanced Equations 2Fe2S3 + 3O2  2Fe2O3 + 6S
Check your answer from the previous slide:
2Fe2S3 + 3O2  2Fe2O3 + 6S
2Al + 3H2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
3Ca + Al2Br6  3CaBr2 + 2Al

7. Types of Reactions Combination Reactions Decomposition Reactions
Types of Reactions
Combination Reactions
Decomposition Reactions
Displacement (Single-Replacement) Reactions
Metathesis (Double-Replacement) Reactions
Combustion Reactions

8. Combination Reactions
Combination Reactions
A combination reaction is a reaction where two substances chemically combine to form another substance.
A + B  AB
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)  2NaCl(s)
P4(s) + 6Cl2(g)  4PCl3(s)

9. Decomposition Reaction
Decomposition Reaction
A decomposition reaction is when a single compound decomposes into two or more other substances.
AB  A + B
2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
2NO2(g)  2NO(g) + O2(g)

10. Displacement Reaction
Displacement Reaction
A displacement (single replacement) reaction is a reaction where one element displaces another element.
A + BC  B + AC
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

11. Metathesis Reaction
A metathesis (double replacement) reaction is a reaction where two compounds switch cations to form two new compounds.
A+B- + C+D-  A+D- + C+B-
CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  ???

12. SOLUBILITY
Solubility – the amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent (like water) at a specific temperature
Unsaturated – amount of substance less than saturated
Saturated – the exact amount at solubility
Supersaturated – excess amount of substance

13. How Solubility Influences Rxn
How Solubility Influences Rxn
When a substance is soluble in water, it will appear with a subscript of (aq) meaning that the substance is broken up into it’s ions incorporated into the water lattice.
When a substance is insoluble in water, it will be written with a subscript of (s), (l), or (g) and will precipitate out of solution.

14. Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water
Soluble Compounds Exceptions
Sodium, potassium, and
ammonium compounds
Acetates and nitrates
Halides (chlorides, bromides, Lead(II), silver, and mercury (I)
and iodides) halides are insoluble
Sulfates Calcium, strontium, barium, and
Lead(II) sulfates are insoluble

15. Insolubility of Ionic Compounds in Water
Insoluble Compounds Exceptions
Carbonates and phosphates Sodium, potassium, and
ammonium compounds
are soluble.
Hydroxides Sodium, potassium, calcium,
strontium, and barium compounds
are soluble
Sulfide Sodium, potassium, calcium,
and ammonium compounds

16. A Look at Metathesis Again
A Look at Metathesis Again
Looking back at slide 10 to the first reaction: when the cations rearranged, the CaCO3 being insoluble by our definition is recorded as CaCO3 (s). The CaCO3 would precipitate out of solution as a solid.
Looking at AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq)  ?, we can rearrange the cations and conclude that the AgCl is a solid and will precipitate out of solution

17. Types of Metathesis Reactions
Types of Metathesis Reactions
Three classifications of metathesis reactions
Precipitation reaction - formation of a solid
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  PbCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Neutralization reaction - formation of water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Gas formation reaction - CO2, H2S, SOx, & NOx are typically formed

18. Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation Reactions
A solid precipitate is produced in the rearrangement of cations as follows:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)  PbCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
The Ionic Equation is expressed as:
Pb+2 + 2NO3- + 2Na+ + CO3-2  PbCO3(s) + 2Na+ + 2NO3-
After neglecting the spectator ions, the net ionic equation will look like:
Pb+2(aq) + CO3-2(aq)  PbCO3(s)

19. Reviewing Ionic Compounds
Reviewing Ionic Compounds
Ca+2 + 2Cl-  CaCl2
Each ion comes together based on charge to form an overall neutral ionic compound.
3Ca+2 + 2PO4-3  Ca3(PO4)2
The cation and the polyatomic ion come together based on charge to form an overall neutral ionic compound.

20. Net Ionic Equations (NIE)
Net Ionic Equations (NIE)
If you were given the reactants Ca(NO3)2 and Na3PO4 you should be able to predict the precipitate and write a balance equation, the ionic equation, and the net ionic equation (NIE) for this reaction.
The NIE for these reactants is as follows:
3Ca+2(aq) + 2PO4-3(aq)  Ca3(PO4)2(s)

21. Common Polyatomic Ions
Common Polyatomic Ions
carbonate ion CO3-2
sulfate ion SO4-2
sulfite ion SO3-2
hydroxide OH-
phosphate PO4-3
permanganate MnO4-
chromate CrO4-2
dichromate Cr2O7-2
ammonium NH4+
oxalate C2O4-2
bicarbonate HCO3-
cyanide ion CN-
acetate C2H3O3-

22. Neutralization Reaction
Neutralization Reaction
A neutralization reaction is a reaction that occurs between an acid and a base with the production of a salt and water.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
acid base salt water

23. Gas Formation Reaction
Gas Formation Reaction
A gas formation reaction is a metathesis reaction that generates a gas as a product.
Metal carbonates or bicarbonates + acid
Metal sulfides + acid
Metal sulfites + acid
Ammonium salts and strong base

24. Metal Carbonates
Metal carbonates or bicarbonates when combined with an acid form salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
Na2CO3(aq)+ 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)+ CO2(g)
Where CO2 gas is given off

25. Metal Sulfides
Metal sulfides when combined with an acid form salt and hydrogen sulfide gas.
Na2S(aq)+ 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq)+ H2S(g)
Where H2S gas is given off

26. Metal Sulfites
Metal sulfites when combined with an acid form salt, water, and sulfur dioxide gas.
Na2SO3(aq)+ 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)+ SO2(g)
Where SO2 gas is given off

27. Ammonium Salts
Ammonium salts when combined with a base produce salt, water and ammonia.
NH4Cl (aq)+ NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq)+ H2O(l)+ NH3(g)
Where ammonia gas is given off

28. Combustion Reactions
A combustion reaction is a reaction with molecular oxygen to form products in which all elements are combined with oxygen.
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O

29. Limiting Reactants
One of the reactants is in limited supply and thus restricts the amount of product formed.
Think of it as: If you wanted to bake a batch of peanut butter cookies and the recipe calls for 1 cup of peanut butter and all you have is ½ a cup, even though you have all the other ingredients, you can at most make ½ a batch of cookies.

30. Limiting Reactants (cont.)
Limiting Reactants (cont.)
Consider the combustion reaction:
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
How much CO2 can be produced if you have 0.13g of methane and 0.45g of O2?

31. Percent Yield
The maximum amount of product that can be obtained from a chemical reaction is the theoretical yield.
The actual amount produced in a chemical process is the actual yield.
The percent yield is equal to the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield times 100%.

32. Redox Reactions
Oxidation of an element takes place when electrons are lost from the valence shell of the element.
Reduction of an element takes place when electrons are added to the valence shell of the element.
Redox reactions show the transfer of electrons that takes place during oxidation and reduction.

33. Redox Reactions (cont.)
Redox Reactions (cont.)
All oxidation and reduction reactions involve transfer of electrons between substances.
View CD-ROM screen 5.12
Ag+ accepts electrons for Cu and is reduced to Ag and Cu loses electrons to Ag+ and is oxidized to Cu+2 in the following redox rxn:
2Ag+(aq) + Cu(s)  2Ag(s) + Cu+2(aq)

34. Redox Reactions (cont.)
Redox Reactions (cont.)
The oxidation half reaction is :
Cu(s) – 2e-  Cu+2(aq)
The reduction half reaction is:
2Ag+(aq) + 2e-  2Ag(s)
Cu is called the reducing agent because it caused Ag+ to be reduced; and Ag+ is called the oxidizing agent because it caused Cu to be oxidized.

35. Determining Oxidation Numbers
Determining Oxidation Numbers
Each atom in a pure element has an oxidation number of zero.
For monoatomic ions, the ox. number is equal to it’s ionic charge.
F is always –1, other halogens are –1 as well except with oxygen or fluorine.
The ox. number for H is +1 except with hydrides (CaH2).and O is –2 except with peroxides (H2O2).
The  ox.# must = 0 for a compound or = to the overall charge of polyatomic ion being considered.

36. Balancing Redox Reactions
Balancing Redox Reactions
We can use the balance of electrons transferred in a redox reaction to help us balance the overall equation.
Consider the unbalanced equation:
Zn(s) + HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The balanced equation takes into consideration the oxidation of the Zn and the reduction of the H+.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

37. Molarity Molarity = Moles of Solute Liters of Total Solution
Molarity
Molarity = Moles of Solute
Liters of Total Solution
Symbol for molarity is M
Units are moles/Liter

38. Solution Preparation
To prepare a 1.0M solution of NaCl, you would determine how many grams of NaCl is contained in 1.0 moles of NaCl and then dissolve that amount in a 1.0L volumetric flask. You would then qs with distilled H2O.
1.0M NaCl = 1 mole (or 58.44g) NaCl
1.0L of solution
How much NaCl would you use to make a 0.1M solution of NaCl?
As 1/10 of a mole = 5.844g NaCl, you would dissolve
0.1mole (5.844g) of NaCl in 1.0L of solution.

39. Acids An acid is defined as follows:
Arrhenius – releases H+ when dissolved in H2O
Bronsted-Lowrey – a substance that can donate a proton to another substance
Lewis – a substance that can accept a pair of electrons from another atom to form a new bond

40. Bases A base is defined as follows:
Arrhenius – releases OH- when dissolved in H2O
Bronsted-Lowrey – a substance that can accept a proton from another substance
Lewis – a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to another atom to form a new bond

41. pH and Concentrations of Acids and Bases
pH = -log [H+]
1 – acidic – 7 – basic – 14
When dealing with [H+] less than 0.1M (pH=1), we use activity coefficients instead of pH.

42. pH of Household Items pH of vinegar = 2.80 pH of soda = 2.90
pH of orange juice = 3.80
pH of pure water = 7.00
pH of blood = 7.40
pH of ammonia = 11.00
pH of oven cleaner = 11.7

43. Titration
A method for quantitative analysis of a substance by essentially complete reaction in solution with a measured quantity of a reagent of known concentration.
Often used in redox reactions
Many redox reactions go rapidly to completion in aqueous media to determine the equivalency point.
Typically used for neutralization reactions.
Acid is titrated with a base using an indicator to determine the equivalency point of the neutralization reactions.