1. Chapter 4: Training and Conditioning Techniques

2. Reduce Injury Prepare the Athlete

3. Athletic Trainers and Strength and Conditioning Coaches
Cooperative relationship that serves to condition athletes in an effort to minimize injury and maximize performance
Knowledge of flexibility, strength, and cardiorespiratory endurance is necessary
Many strength coaches are certified through the National Strength and Conditioning Association

4. Athletic trainer may be called upon to review programs/make suggestions
Take into consideration components of particular sport and injury prevention
Rehabilitation of injuries is the responsibility of the athletic trainer
Different settings (professional, college, high school) will require differing levels of supervision by the ATC

6. Periodization in Training and Conditioning
Traditional seasons no longer exist for serious athletes
Periodization
Achieve peak performance
Decrease injuries and overtraining
Program that spans various seasons
Modify program relative to athlete’s needs

7. Macrocycle Complete training cycle
Seasonal approach based on preseason, in-season, and off-season
Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of training occur in order to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition
Broken into mesocycles (lasting weeks or months)

8. Mesocycles Transition period: Preparatory period:
Follows last competition (early off-season)
Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
Preparatory period:
Off-season
Hypertropy/endurance phase (Low intensity with high volume)
Allows for development of endurance base
Lasts several weeks to 2 months
Strength Phase
Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)

9. Preparatory period (continued)
Strength Phase
Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
Competition period:
May last a < week or several months for seasonal sports
High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions
May incorporate microcycles (1-7 days)
Designed to ensure peak on days of competition

10. Cross Training
Training for a sport with substitutions of alternative activities (carryover value)
Useful in transition and preparatory periods
Variety to training regimen
Should be discontinued prior to preseason as it is not sport-specific

11. Principles of Conditioning and Training
Warm-up/Cool-down
Motivation
Overload and SAID principle
Consistency/routine
Progression
Intensity
Specificity
Individuality
Relaxation/Minimize Stress
Safety

12. Warm-up
Precaution against unnecessary musculoskeletal injury and soreness
May enhance certain aspects of performance
Prepares body physiologically for physical work
Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing circulation and blood flow to muscles
Increases metabolic processes, core temperature, and muscle elasticity

13. General
Activities which bring a general warming to the body(break a sweat)
Not related to sport
Specific
Specific to sport
Stretching, jogging, running, throwing, catching
Should last minutes resulting in effects that will last 45 minutes

14. Cool-down Essential component of workout
Bring body back to resting state
5-10 minutes in duration
Often ignored
Decreased muscle soreness following training if time used to stretch after workout

15. Improving and Maintaining Flexibility
Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of motion (ROM)
Decreased ROM results in:
Decreased performance capabilities
Uncoordinated/awkward movements
Predisposes athlete to injury
Good flexibility is essential for successful physical performance
Recommended by athletic trainers to prevent injury

16. Factors That Limit Flexibility
Bony structures
Tissue approximation
Excessive fat
Muscle and tendon lengths
Connective tissue
Scarring and contractures
Skin

18. Range of Motion (ROM) Active range of motion = dynamic flexibility
Ability to move a joint with little resistance
Passive range of motion = static flexibility
Motion of joint to end points without muscle contraction
Must be able to move through unrestricted range
Must have elasticity for additional stretch encountered during activity

19. Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles
Joints are capable of multiple movements
Example:
Quadriceps will extend knee with contraction
Hamstrings will stretch during extension
Quads (muscle producing movement) referred to as agonist
Muscle undergoing stretch referred to as antagonist
Agonist and antagonist work together to produce smooth coordinated movements

20. Stretching Techniques
Ballistic
Bouncing movement in which repetitive contractions of agonist work to stretch antagonist muscle
Spindles tighten instead of relax
Possible soreness (soccer example)

21. Static stretching Passively stretching 6-8 second hold
Go to point of pain and back off and hold for 30 seconds (3 to 4 times)
Controlled, less chance of injury
Not dynamic

22. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
Physical therapy for neuromuscular paralysis
Slow-reversal-hold-relax
Contract-relax
Hold-relax
Ten second push, ten second relax
Best technique to improve flexibility
Autogenic inhibition (push = tension)
Reciprocal inhibition (pull = relax)

24. Neurophysiological Basis of Stretching
Stretch Reflex
Muscle is placed on stretch(muscle spindle)
Muscle spindles fire relaying info. to spinal cord
Spinal cord relays message to golgi tendon and increases tension
After 6 seconds golgi tendon organ (GTO) relays signal for muscle tension to decrease
Prevents injury - protective mechanism

26. With static stretching golgi tendons are able to override impulses from muscle spindle following initial reflex resistance
Allows muscle to remain stretched without injury
PNF benefits greatly from these principles
With slow-reversal hold technique, maximal contraction of muscle stimulates GTO reflex relaxation before stretch applied

27. Relaxation of antagonist during contraction = autogenic inhibition
During relaxation phase, antagonist is placed under stretch but assisted by agonist contraction to pull further
Contraction elicits additional relaxation of antagonist (protect against injury)
Referred to as reciprocal inhibition

28. Flexibility vs. Strength
Co-exist
Muscle bound = zero flexibility
Strength training will provide individual with ability to develop dynamic flexibility through full range of motion
Develop more powerful and coordinated movements

29. Measuring Range of Motion
Various devices have been designed to accommodate joint sizes and complexities of movement
Goniometer most widely used device
Protractor (degrees) that utilizes alignment of two arms parallel to longitudinal axis of two segments involved in motion
Relatively accurate tool for measurement

31. Flexibility, Muscular Strength, Endurance, and Power

32. Muscle Strength, Power, and Endurance
Strength: ability to generate force against resistance
Power: is the relationship between strength and time
Muscular endurance: repetitive muscular contractions (increase strength = increase endurance

33. Muscle Contractions Isometric contraction Isotonic contraction
No length change occurs during contraction
Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
Con: only works at one point in ROM
Isotonic contraction
Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction in an effort to overcome more resistance
Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with contraction because load is greater than force being produced
Both are considered dynamic movements

35. Fast Twitch vs. Slow Twitch
Motor units with distinct metabolic and contractile capability
Slow twitch (Type I):
Fatigue resistant
Time necessary to produce force is greater
Long duration, aerobic type activities
Generally major constituent of postural muscles

36. Metabolic capabilities can change in response to training
Fast twitch (Type II)
Fatigue
Anaerobic in nature
High force in short amount of time
Produce powerful movements
A vs. B
Individual make-up
Muscles contain both types of fibers
Muscle functioning impacts ratios (postural vs. powerful movement)
Genetically determined
Metabolic capabilities can change in response to training

37. Factors that Determine Levels of Muscular Strength
Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy
Size of muscle: function of diameter and number of fibers
Neuromuscular efficiency
Biomechanical factors
Overtraining (psychologically, physiologically)
Reversibility

38. Physiology of Strength Development
Three theories of muscle hypertrophy:
Increase in number of fibers
Infusion of blood - transient hypertrophy
Increase in protein myofilament number and size
PROVEN
Other enhancements due to training
Increased noncontractile tissue strength, bone mineral content, aerobic/anaerobic enzymes, enhanced oxygen uptake

39. Techniques of Resistance Training
Progressive resistance exercise
Overload principle must be applied
Must work muscle at increasingly higher intensities to enhance strength over time
If intensity of training does not increase, but training continues, muscle strength will be sustained

40. Overload Principle
Activity must be increased and upgraded constantly in order to gain a higher response from the body
Work at or near maximum capacity
Applicable to conditioning and training

41. Isometric Exercises Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged
Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should be perform 5-10 times/daily
Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver

42. Progressive Resistance Exercises (Isotonic training)
Shortening/lengthening
Concentric vs. Eccentric
Various types of equipment can be utilized
(Free weights, machine weight)
Spotter is necessary for free weight training to prevent injury, motivate partner and instruct on technique

43. Variations exist between free and machine weight lifting
Concentric and eccentric training should be incorporated for greatest strength improvement
Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2 seconds, eccentric phase 2-4 seconds
Variations exist between free and machine weight lifting
Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control required, amount of weight that can be lifted

44. Terminology associated with weight training
Repetitions
Repetition maximum
One repetition maximum
Set
Intensity
Recovery period
Frequency

45. When training should be able to perform 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions
Increases should occur in increments of 10%
1 RM can be utilized measure maximum amount of weight that can be lifted - must be very careful
Training of a particular muscle group should occur 3-4 times per week (not on successive days)

46. Muscular Endurance vs. Strength
Training for endurance enhances strength and vice versa
Training for strength should involve lower repetitions at heavier weight
Training for endurance requires lower weight at repetitions

47. Isokinetic Training Muscle contraction at a constant velocity
Maximal and constant resistance throughout the full range of motion
Maximal effort = Maximal strength gains
Disadvantages
Cost
Need for maximal effort/motivation
Rehab

49. Circuit Training Combination of exercise stations
stations, 3 times through
Design for different training goals
Flexibility
Calisthenics
Aerobic exercise

50. Calisthenic Strengthening Exercises
Free exercise
Isotonic training
Gravity’s involvement determines level of intensity
Full range of motion, may incorporate holding phase
Pull-ups, push-ups, back extensions, leg extensions

51. Plyometric Exercise
Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a rapid concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive movement
Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws
Very technical training - skills must be learned with appropriate technique

52. Training for the Female Athlete
Critical for female athlete
Significant hypertrophy is related to testosterone present within body
Remarkable gains are experienced initially due to enhanced nervous system and muscle interaction (efficiency-not muscle bulk)
Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with females

53. Males tend to continue to increase strength with training
Critical difference is the ratio of strength to body fat
Females have reduced strength to body weight ratio due to higher percentage of body fat
Ratio can be enhanced through weight training and decrease in body fat percentage/increased lean weight

54. Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Perform whole body activities for extended period of time
Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury
System’s four components
Heart
Lungs
Blood vessels
Blood
Improvements in endurance are the results of improvements in these 4 components

55. Aerobic capacity = VO2max
Increases in intensity require higher levels of oxygen consumption
Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic capacity
More active = higher capacity
Average value = ml O2/min/kg
Three factors impact capacity
External respiration
Ventilatory process
Gas transportation (most limiting factor)

56. Impact on Heart Main pumping mechanism
Increase exercise = increased oxygen requirement=increase heart pumping
Heart must gradually adapt to imposed demands but will reach steady state after 2-3 minutes of training
Heart able to adapt through increases in heart rate and stroke volume which will enhance overall cardiac output

57. A training effect results with regard to cardiac output.
Over the course of training, at a given intensity, stroke volume increases while heart is reduced
Cardiac functioning becomes more efficient (hypertrophy of heart occurs)

58. Energy Systems Various sports entail different energy demands
Long distance running and swimming vs. sprinting and jumping
ATP: Immediate Energy Source
ATP produced from glucose breakdown
Glucose from blood or glycogen (muscle or liver) broken down to glucose converted to ATP
Fat becomes utilized when glycogen stores depleted

59. Aerobic versus anaerobic
Both generate ATP
Initial ATP production from glucose occurs in muscle (without oxygen = anaerobic)
Transition to glucose and fat oxidation (requiring oxygen = aerobic) to continue activity
Generally both systems occur to a degree simultaneously
Type of ATP production relative to intensity
Short burst (high intensity) = anaerobic
Long duration (sustained intensity) = aerobic

60. Types of Training for Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Continuous
Mode (type of exercise) - must be aerobic in nature
Frequency (at least 3 times/week)
Duration(at least 20 minutes)
Intensity (must elevate heart rate to 70% of maximum)

62. Interval training
Intermittent activities involving periods of intense work and active recovery
Must occur at 60-80% of maximal heart rate
Allows for higher intensity training at short intervals over an extended period of time
Most anaerobic sports require short burst which can be mimicked through interval training

63. Fartlek training Cross-country running that originated in Sweden
Speed play
Similar to interval training in the fact activity occurs over a specific period of time but pace and speed are not specified
Consists of varied terrain which incorporates varying degrees of hills
Dynamic form of training
Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be effective
Popular form of training in off-season

64. Equipment for Endurance Training
Cost can vary from $2- $60,000
Jump rope to treadmill and computers
Fitness Assessments
Provides coaching and athletic training personnel with information relative to fitness and preparedness
Pre-testing and post-testing format should be utilized
Can assess all facets of training and conditioning with established tests and protocols