1. Spoken and Written Language Written language is not simply speech written down. They are different because they evolve to serve different functions. Early writing tended to be oriented towards goods and services: law, codes of behaviour, transaction. Artistic functions originated in the spoken language, and were only later written down Spoken language is more context dependent; written language tends to be more independent of its immediate context.

2. SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE CONTINUUM Most SpokenMost Written Spoken Language Written Language Language accompanying action Language as reflection

3. The Continuum Most Spoken Context dependent Language as action Language as process (dynamic) Most Written Context independent Language as reflection Language as product (synoptic)

4. Different Features Turn taking organisation Context dependent Dynamic structure  Interactive staging  Open ended Spontaneity phenomena (false start, hesitation etc.) Monologic organization Context independent Synoptic structure   Rhetorical staging   Closed / Finite Final draft/polished (indication of earlier draft removed)

5. Different Features Everyday lexis Non-standard grammar Grammatical complexity Lexically sparse Prestige lexis Standard grammar Grammatical simplicity Lexically dense

6. Context Dependent Meanings are recovered by context Not everything should be explicitly stated Stating everything may result in “overexplicitness”, thus, unnatural Language choice depends on context of situation (tenor, field, mode)

7. Context Independent Meanings and context are created and presented by writers. Everything should be presented for clarity. Completeness is necessary. Language choice is based on the imagined readers

8. Dynamic Structure Structures are repeated Interactive staging Open-ended A lot of opening and re-opening A lot of topics

9. Synoptic Structure Generic structure potential: recount, procedure, report etc. Rhetorical staging Closed / finite / fixed

10. Spontaneity Phenomena Incomplete clauses Gambits False start Topic termination Overlap Interruption Etc.

11. Final Draft Well structured Complete sentences Well punctuated Free from spelling mistakes Undergoes several editing processes Polished language

12. Everyday vs. prestige lexis Start Lively Fun Guys Commence Vivacious Joyful Ladies and gentlemen Etc.

13. Standard vs. Non-standard grammar There’s a lot of people. It’s me! I wanna go I ain’t going There are many people. It is I. I want to go I am not going

14. Grammatical Complexity & Lexically sparse Hey, I tell you what! Yesterday I went to… you know this place? They call it Guci. It’s somewhere around this city… what do you call it? The city that people plant those shallots and also lots of salted duck eggs? I think it starts with B or something. From here it’s rather far… I think it’s after Tegal.

15. Grammatical Simplicity & Lexically Dense Yesterday I went to a little town called Guci. It is a small cool city located at a cool mountain slope not far from Brebes. Usually people come to Guci to enjoy some hot-water springs that are believed to have strong soothing effects to those who suffer from water-born skin diseases caused by badly managed sewage sanitation.

16. Spoken Language Based on clauses Subjects/objects: simple pronouns (you, I) or noun phrase (my father, the house Gambits: help clarify interpersonal meanings Fillers (well…, uhm…, right…) More emphasis on interpersonal meanings

17. Written Language Based on sentence Subjects/Objects are realised in complex noun phrases Use of passive patterns (less personal, objectified) More emphasis on ideational meanings

18. Spoken: grammatical intricacy (G&W 1995:162-163) I can’t mind the kids today Because I must go to fotball training And can’t leave early Because we’ve got an important game on Saturday And if we win it We go into the finals Because I don’t have training So I can mind them then If that’s Ok with you

19. Written Form: Lexical density (p.164) Due to the importance of a win in Saturday’s football game as a pre-requisite for a final appearance, the necessity of my training attendance diminishes my child minding capacity tonight However, the lack of an attendance requirement on Wednesday allows my availability consequent upon your approval.

20. What has changed? The way the information is distributed, the number of content words per clause has risen dramatically. The lexical density has risen. Grammatical changes push the lexical density up. The key difference in grammar is the amount of grammatical metaphor.

21. Nominalisation Much information that was spread out in the spoken language has been condensed by way of nominatisation. e.g. because I must go to football training (clause) The necessity of my training requirement (noun phrase)

22. Example (Halliday 1989) Spoken: This is yer phone bill and you hafta go to the post office to pay it – uh by next Monday, that’s what this bax tells ya – or they’ll cut the phone off. Written: All phone bills must be paid by the date shown or service will be discontinued.