1. The Structure of the Earth and Plate Tectonics

2. Sphere’s of the Earth The Four Great Realms: The natural systems encountered in physical geography operate within the four great realms, or spheres, of the Earth. These are the atmosphere; the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere. Atmosphere - The gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It receives heat and moisture from the surface and redistributes them, returning some heat and all of the moisture to the surface. It supplies vital elements needed to sustain life forms. Lithosphere - This outermost solid layer of the Earth provides a platform for most life-forms. The solid bedrock bears a shallow layer of soil in which nutrient elements become available to organisms. The surface of the lithosphere is sculpted into landforms which provide varied habitats for plants, animals, and humans.

3. Sphere’s continued Hydrosphere - The liquid realm of the Earth is principally the mass of water in the world’s oceans. It also includes solid ice in mountain and continental glaciers. Water occurs as a gaseous vapor, liquid droplets, and solid ice crystals. In the lithosphere, water is found in the uppermost layers in soils and in ground water reservoirs. Biosphere - Most of the biosphere is contained in the shallow surface zone called the life layer. It includes the surface of the lands and the upper 100 meters of the ocean. On land, the life layer is the zone of interactions among the biosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere.

4. The Four Great Realms Lithosphere - All processes associated with the solid earth Hydrosphere - All processes associated with water Atmosphere - All processes associated with the gases that envelope the earth Biosphere - All processes that involve living organisms

5. Structure of the Earth The Earth is made up of 3 main layers: –Core –Mantle –Crust Inner core Outer core Mantle Crust

6. The Crust This is where we live! The Earth’s crust is made of: Continental Crust - thick (10-70km) - buoyant (less dense than oceanic crust) - mostly old Oceanic Crust - thin (~7 km) - dense (sinks under continental crust) - young

7. How do we know what the Earth is made of? Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity, magnetics, electrical, geodesy –Acquisition: land, air, sea and satellite –Geological surveys: fieldwork, boreholes, mines

9. What is Plate Tectonics?

10. If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the continents could fit together like pieces of a puzzle.

11. Plate Tectonics The Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major plates which are moved in various directions. This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other. Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or “tectonic” features. The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.

12. World Plates

13. What are tectonic plates made of? Plates are made of rigid lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of the crust and the upper part of the mantle.

14. What lies beneath the tectonic plates? Below the lithosphere (which makes up the tectonic plates) is the asthenosphere. Part of the upper mantle

15. Plate Movement “Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection cells

16. Divergent Convergent Transform Three types of plate boundary

17. Spreading ridges –As plates move apart new material is erupted to fill the gap Divergent Boundaries

18. Age of Oceanic Crust Courtesy of www.ngdc.noaa.gov

19. Iceland has a divergent plate boundary running through its middle Iceland: An example of continental rifting

21. There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries –Continent-continent collision –Continent-oceanic crust collision –Ocean-ocean collision Convergent Boundaries

22. Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas Continent-Continent Collision

23. Himalayas

24. Called SUBDUCTION Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision

25. Oceanic lithosphere subducts underneath the continental lithosphere Oceanic lithosphere heats and dehydrates as it subsides The melt rises forming volcanism E.g. The Andes Subduction

26. When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a subduction zone. The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep depression in the ocean floor called a trench. The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found along trenches. –E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep! Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision

28. Where plates slide past each other Transform Boundaries Above: View of the San Andreas transform fault

30. Practical Exercise 2 Where will the UK be in: 1,000 years? 1,000,000 years? 1,000,000,000 years?

32. …what’s the connection? Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics…

33. Volcanism is mostly focused at plate margins Pacific Ring of Fire

34. - Subduction - Rifting - Hotspots Volcanoes are formed by:

35. Pacific Ring of Fire Hotspot volcanoes

36. Hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in the middle of a tectonic plate What are Hotspot Volcanoes? Photo: Tom Pfeiffer / www.volcanodiscovery.com The Hawaiian island chain are examples of hotspot volcanoes.

37. The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot forming a chain of volcanoes. The volcanoes get younger from one end to the other.

38. …what’s the connection? Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics…

39. As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe At the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together. When built up energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur. Figure showing the distribution of earthquakes around the globe

40. Where do earthquakes form? Figure showing the tectonic setting of earthquakes

41. Plate Tectonics Summary The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust) On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly move around the globe Plates are made of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere) There are 2 types of plate There are 3 types of plate boundaries Volcanoes and Earthquakes are closely linked to the margins of the tectonic plates