1. Concepts in Error Analysis
Session 9

2. Cognitive Code Theory
The cognitive-code approach of the 1970s emphasized that language learning involved active mental processes, that it was not just a process of habit formation (the assumption underlying the audio-lingual method that came before it). Lessons focused on learning grammatical structures but the cognitive code approach emphasized the importance of meaningful practice, and the structures were presented inductively, i.e. the rules came after exposure to examples. There was, however, little use of examples from authentic material.

3. Cognitive Code Theory Example:
The aim of the class is for learners to understand the ‘rule of the day', which is that the past form of regular verbs is made using -ed. The teacher elicits a dialogue that includes clear examples of the structure. The learners practice it, and the teacher uses it to elicit the rules.

4. Cognitive Code Theory In the classroom:
The approach included the clear and structured use of concept questions to help learners identify the limits of use of structure and lexis, and teachers still find this useful. The PPP methodology, (Presentation, Practice and Production), through which learners gain a clear understanding of a grammatical rule before they practice it in meaningful contexts, may still suit some learning contexts and teachers.

5. Nativist Language Theory
The nativist perspective argues that humans are biologically programmed to gain knowledge. The main theorist associated with this perspective is Noam Chomsky.
Chomsky proposed that all humans have a language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD contains knowledge of grammatical rules common to all languages. The LAD also allows children to understand the rules of whatever language they are listening to. Chomsky also developed the concepts of transformational grammar, surface structure, and deep structure.
Transformational grammar is grammar that transforms a sentence. Surface structures are words that are actually written. Deep structure is the underlying message or meaning of a sentence.

6. Nativist Language Interpretation
Transformational Generative Grammar
attempts to explain how we can produce and understand an unlimited number of sentences
universal grammar (UG) as innate
child does need to learn what all human languages have in common (UG); only needs to learn what is unique to his or her specific language
principles (innate) and parameters (acquired quickly)
language acquisition device (LAD)
innate ability to acquire language
The Nativist Perspective in Review
"we have not ruled out the nativists' basis contention, which is that human beings are born with an innate capacity for language. What remains in the debate is to determine the relative importance of this innate capacity in comparison to the influence of environmental factors."

7. The Logical Problem of Language Acquisition
People used to think that children learn by imitating those around them.
How is it possible for children who still have immature cognitive capacity to succeed in L1development and acquire complex linguistic system quite easily?
What are the possible reasons of children’ success in developing their linguistic competence despite of their lack cognitive capacity?

8. Input
Children’s linguistic competence includes knowledge of which sentences are not possible, although input doesn't provide them with this information.
e.g. L1 students’ input  positive evidence or actual utterances
L2 students’ input  negative evidence or correction

9. Creativity
Chomsky originally believes that the LAD is a series of syntactic universals, structural properties universally found in all languages. These syntactic structures are inborn. Only the words are learned. Allows us infinite creativity based on a limited number of patterns. Children thus generate sentences based on learned words and innate syntactic patterns. This is why children make grammatical mistakes that they could not be repeating.

10. First and Second Language Acquisition
The first area of difference between first (L1) and second (L2) language learning is input – specifically the quality and quantity of input.
It is the idea of the "connectionist model that implies... (that the) language learning process depends on the input frequency and regularity".
The quantity of exposure to a target language a child gets is immense compared to the amount an adult receives.
A child hears the language all day everyday, whereas an adult learner may only hear the target language in the classroom – which could be as little as three hours a week.
Even if one looks at an adult in a total submersion situation the quantity is still less because the amount of one on one interaction that a child gets for example with a parent or other caregiver is still much greater then the adult is receiving.

11. First and Second Language Acquisition
The next great and obvious difference between L1 and L2 learning is age. A large part of this train of thought is the idea of a "critical period, or the "time after which successful language learning cannot take place".
There are three main physical changes one undergoes in regards to language acquisition.
The first is the presence of muscular plasticity. After this age it is very hard for a learner to fully master pronunciation of a second language.
The second change is one's memorization capabilities. It is fairly well known that as a person grows older their ability to hold large amount of information reaches its peak fairly early in life, and then begins to decrease.
The third physical change that occurs is more related to neurology.

12. First and Second Language Acquisition
The one advantage adults seem to have over children is their cognitive ability. Adults are better able to benefit from learning about structure and grammar.
Unfortunately this slight advantage in ability does not help adult second language acquisition in general. In fact this ability almost hinders them in that they analyze too much.
Specifically, they cannot leave behind what they know about their first language, which leads to a tendency to overanalyze and to second guess what they are learning.

13. First and Second Language Acquisition
The final area that is within the emotional, or affective, realm.
Motivation is much affected by emotional change. A child's motivation is simple. In order to communicate and to be a part of family and society the child must master the target language.
Adult motivations usually fall into one of two categories: "integrative motivation (which encourages a learner to acquire the new language in order to become closer to and/or identify themselves with the speakers of the target language) or instrumental motivation (which encourages a learner to acquire proficiency for such practical purposes as becoming a translator, doing further research, and aiming for promotion in their career)".
Either one of these types of motivation must be prevalent for successful acquisition to take place.

14. Error Analysis
In error analysis (EA), scholars approach errors as evidence that learners are actively engaged in hypothesis testing / inducing rules.
In EA, errors are treated productively, as evidence of learner engagement. In EA errors are signs that the learner is investigating the systems of the new language.

15. Receptive vs. Productive errors
Productive errors are those which occur in the language learner's utterances.
Receptive or interpretive errors are those which result in the listener's misunderstanding of the speaker's intentions.

16. Errors vs. Mistakes
Mistakes are slips of the tongue; they are products of chance circumstances;
they occur in the realm / at the level of performance (parole)
Errors are products that reveal learners’ under-lying knowledge of the language to date, or as we may call it their transitional competence.
Note: Performance and competence. Mistakes happen when we mis-speak. Errors are artifacts of our competence in language at a given time – from them, we can infer something of learners’ deep underlying understanding of the language to date.

17. Significance of Errors
Error analysis is essentially significant because, as Richards refers to Corder’s observation: “Learner’s correct sentences do not necessarily give evidence of the rules of the new language and the rules he has developed at given stages of his language development”. This can be done only by the errors he makes. And after knowing this only one can proceed in teaching. So, errors, and its analysis both are an inevitable part of teaching & learning.

18. Theoretical vs. Applied Error Analysis
Theoretical analysis of errors, as mentioned before, primarily concerns the process and strategies of language learning and its similarities with first language acquisition. In other words, it tries to investigate what is going on in the minds of language learners.
Secondly, it tries to decode the strategies of learners such as overgeneralization and simplification, and thirdly, to go to a conclusion that regards the universals of language learning process whether there is an internal syllabus for learning a second language.
Applied error analysis, on the other hand, concerns organizing remedial courses, and devising appropriate materials and teaching strategies based on the findings of theoretical error analysis.

19. Four Stages of Interlanguage Development
four stages of interlanguage development. The first stag where the learner makes” random errors’ the student is not aware that his or her errors are systematic.
The second stage is called the “emergent stage” errors in which the learner becomes consistent in his or her linguistic production.
The third stage is called the “systematic stage” in which the learner shows more consistency.
When the learner reaches the fourth stage s/he is able to correct himself or herself and this fourth stage is called the “stabilization stage” ( p.232 ).