2. Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (6th Ed) Chapter 8 Learning James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers

3. Learning z Learning yrelatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience yExperience (nurture) is the key to learning

4. Association zWe learn by association yOur minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence yAristotle 2000 years ago yJohn Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago zAssociative Learning ylearning that two events occur together xtwo stimuli xa response and its consequences

5. Association zLearning to associate two events Event 1Event 2 Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

6. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zWe learn to associate two stimuli Two related events: Lightning Stimulus 1 Thunder Stimulus 2 Result after repetition We see lightning Stimulus We wince anticipating thunder Response

7. Operant Conditioning zWe learn to associate a response and its consequence Response: Pushing vending machine button Consequence: Receiving a candy bar

8. Behaviorism zJohn B. Watson yviewed psychology as objective science xgenerally agreed-upon consensus today yrecommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes xnot universally accepted by all schools of thought today

9. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zIvan Pavlov y1849-1936 yRussian physician/ neurophysiologist yNobel Prize in 1904 ystudied digestive secretions

10. Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning During ConditioningAfter Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation UCR (salivation) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation)

11. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zPavlov’s device for recording salivation

12. Classical Conditioning zPavlov- accidental discovery, studying how a dog’s stomach prepares to digest food z1) Ring a tuning fork, place meat powder on the dog’s tongue yNeutral response- does not initially elicit a response

13. Classical Conditioning z2) After a few times, the dog will start salivating as soon as it heard the sound, even if there is no food in the mouth zA NEUTRAL STIMULUS CAN CAUSE A FORMALLY UNRELATED RESPONSE IF IT IS PRESENTED REGULARLY BEFORE THE STIMULUS THAT NORMALLY BRINGS THE RESPONSE

14. Classical Conditioning zUnconditioned stimulus (UCS)- an event that elicits a certain predictable response without previous training (food) zUnconditioned response (UCR)- an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus (salivation) zConditioned stimulus (CS)- a once neutral response that elicits a given response after a period of training in which is has been partied with an unconditioned stimulus (tuning fork sound) zConditioned response (CR)- the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (salivating to the tuning fork)

15. Conditioning zAcquisition ythe initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened- timing matters! xin classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response xin operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

16. Conditioning zExtinction ydiminishing of a CR xin classical conditioning, when a UCS does not follow a CS xin operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced

17. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning Strength of CR Pause Acquisition (CS+UCS) Extinction (CS alone) Extinction (CS alone) Spontaneous recovery of CR

18. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zSpontaneous Recovery yreappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR zGeneralization ytendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses

19. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning zDiscrimination yin classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal and UCS yin operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

20. Generalization Drops of saliva in 30 seconds 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Hind paw PelvisShoulder Front paw ThighTrunkForeleg Part of body stimulated

21. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning UCS (passionate kiss) UCR (sexual arousal) CS (onion breath) CS (onion breath) CR (sexual arousal) UCS (passionate Kiss) UCR (sexual arousal)

22. Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients UCS (drug) UCR (nausea) CS (waiting room) CS (waiting room) CR (nausea) UCS (drug) UCR (nausea)

23. Common Conditioned Responses UCSCSUCRCR DrillDentist/Sound of Drill Tension Catchy jingle Product (Coke)Favorable feeling Speeding ticket Flashing lightsDistress

24. zAnimals and humans are biologically prepared to make some connections easier than others yLearned taste aversions- can result based on a single UCS/CS pairing yMost common with a salient CS- must be easily noticeable (strong and unusual) Stomach Virus UCS Nausea UCR Wonton Soup CS Nausea CR

25. Operant Conditioning zOperant Conditioning ytype of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment zLaw of Effect yThorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

26. zType of learning in which behavior is ystrengthened if followed by reinforcement or ydiminished if followed by punishment zEdward Thorndike yCat in a puzzle box, locked in its cage next to its food yThe amount of time needed to get out of the puzzle box decreased gradually yNo mental activity- simply connecting a stimulus and a response

27. Operant Conditioning zOperant Behavior ycomplex or voluntary behaviors xpush button, perform complex task yoperates (acts) on environment yproduces consequences zRespondent Behavior yoccurs as an automatic response to stimulus ybehavior learned through classical conditioning

28. Operant Conditioning zB.F. Skinner (1904-1990) yelaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect ydeveloped behavioral technology

29. Operant Chamber zSkinner Box ysoundproof chamber with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward ycontains a device to record responses

30. Operant Conditioning zReinforcer yany event that strengthens the behavior it follows zShaping yconditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal zSuccessive Approximations yreward behaviors that increasingly resemble desired behavior

31. Positive Reinforcement zSomething wanted is added after an action ySocial approval yMoney yTokens ySpecial Approval yJelly beans yDog biscuits yAttention

32. Negative Reinforcement zSomething unpleasant is taken away after an action yTaking aspirin to relieve a headache yFanning oneself to escape the heat yLeaving the movie theatre if the movie is bad yPutting on a seatbelt to avoid the irritating buzz yPutting up an umbrella to escape the rain ySmoking to relieve anxiety

33. Principles of Reinforcement zPrimary Reinforcer yinnately reinforcing stimulus ysatisfies a biological need zSecondary Reinforcer yconditioned reinforcer ylearned through association with primary reinforcer

34. Schedules of Reinforcement zContinuous Reinforcement yreinforcing the desired response each time it occurs ylearning occurs rapidly yextinction occurs rapidly zPartial Reinforcement yreinforcing a response only part of the time yresults in slower acquisition ygreater resistance to extinction

35. Punishment zPunishment yaversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows ypowerful controller of unwanted behavior

36. Problems with Punishment zPunished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent zCauses increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes

37. Problems with Punishment zCreates fear that can generalize to desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression zDoes not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do-- punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone zPunishment teaches how to avoid it

38. Schedules of Reinforcement zVariable Ratio (VR) yreinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses yaverage ratios ylike gambling, fishing yvery hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

39. Schedules of Reinforcement zFixed Interval (FI) yreinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed yresponse occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

40. Schedules of Reinforcement zVariable Interval (VI) yreinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals yproduces slow steady responding ylike pop quiz

41. Schedules of Reinforcement zFixed Ratio (FR) yreinforces a response only after a specified number of responses yfaster you respond the more rewards you get ydifferent ratios yvery high rate of responding ylike piecework pay

42. zInterval- time, Ratio- number zVariable are more resistant to extinction than fixed zPartial are more resistant to extinction than continuous Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get very high rate of responding Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz

43. Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval Number of responses 1000 750 500 250 0 10203040506070 Time (minutes) Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Steady responding Rapid responding near time for reinforcement 80

44. zLimits exist to what animals can learn to do yInstinctive drift- go back to typical patterns of behavior zCognitive theorists believe that there is a cognitive component as well

45. Operant vs Classical Conditioning ExtinctionCR decreases when CS isResponding decreases when repeatedly presented alone.reinforcement stops. Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning The ResponseInvoluntary, automatic“Voluntary,” operates on environment AcquisitionAssociating events;Associating response with a CS announces UCS.Consequence (reinforcer or punisher). CognitiveSubjects develop expectation Subjects develop expectation that processesthat CS signals the arrival ofa response will be reinforced or UCS.Punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement BiologicalNatural predispositions Organisms best learn behaviors predispositionscontain what stimuli andsimilar to their natural behaviors; responses can easily beunnatural behaviors instinctively associated.drift back toward natural ones.

46. Cognition and Operant Conditioning zCognitive Map ymental representation of the layout of one’s environment yexample- after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it zLatent Learning ylearning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

47. Cognition and Operant Conditioning zOverjustification Effect ythe effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do ythe person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

48. Latent Learning 12345678910111213141516171819202122 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Average errors Days Never Reinforced Always Reinforced Begin Reinforcement on Day 10

49. Observational Learning zModeling yprocess of observing and imitating behavior zObservational Learning ylearning by observing and imitating others zProsocial Behavior ypositive, constructive, helpful behavior yopposite of antisocial behavior

50. Learned Helplessness zA condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable yDogs escaping shock yBattered wife syndrome

51. Modeling zObservational Learning: Bandura’s Study yChildren were told to play while in another part of the room an adult aggressively played with a Bobo doll yChildren were brought into a room that contained many attractive toys including a Bobo doll yThe child exhibited a good deal of aggressive behavior towards the Bobo doll

53. Modeling: TV and Violence zNational Television Violence Study yBy watching violent television: xViewers learn to behave violently xThey become more sensitized to violence xThey become more fearful of being attacked yOther findings: xPerpetrators go unpunished 73% of the time x47% show no harm to victims, 58% show no pain xOnly 15% show blood

54. z1) Try as you might, you are unable to teach your dog to do a somersault. He will roll around on the ground, but he refuses to execute the gymnastics move you desire because of yInstinctive drift yPreparedness yEquipotentiality yChaining yShaping

55. z2) Tina likes to play with slugs, but she can find them by the shed only after it rains. On what kind of reinforcement is Tina’s slug hunting? yContinuous yFixed-interval yFixed-ratio yVariable-interval yVariable-ratio

56. z3) Before his parents will read him a bedtime story, Charley has to brush his teeth, put on his pajamas, kiss his grandmother goodnight, and put away his toys. This example illustrates yShaping yAcquisition yGeneralizing yChaining yA token economy

57. z4) Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? yBuying a child a video game after she throws a tantrum yGoing inside to escape a thunderstorm yAssigning a student detention for fighting yGetting a cavity filled at the dentist to halt a toothache yDepriving a prison inmate of sleep

58. z5) Just before something scary happens in a horror film, they often play scary sounding music. When I hear the music, I tense up in anticipation of the scary event. In this situation, the music serves as a yUS yCS yUR yCR yNR