2.  What shapes the way we change over time?  Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span  Every area of psychology can be looked at from this perspective › biological development › social development › cognitive/perceptual development › personality development

3.  What is role of heredity vs. environment in determining psychological makeup? › Is IQ inherited or determined early environment? › Is there a ‘criminal’ gene? › Is sexual orientation a choice or genetically determined?  These are some of our greatest societal debates  Mistake to pose as “either/or” questions

4.  Genotype—underlying genetic makeup  Phenotype—traits that are expressed  Dominant genes—will always be expressed if present  Recessive genes—will not be expressed unless they are in a pair

5.  People behave the way they do because they are animals who act in accordance with their animal instincts and are determined by their biology.

6.  People behave the way they do because they are determined by the things other people teach them, the things they observe around them, and because of the different situations they are put in.

7. What differences are there between girls and boys behaviour? What makes boys and girls behave differently? What stereotypes are there of Female/male behaviour & appearance?

8.  Traits linked to the X or Y (sex) chromosomes  Usually recessive and carried on the X chromosome  Appear more frequently in one sex than another  Color blindness, baldness, hemophilia, Fragile X

9.  More risk taking  More aggressive  More physical  Rough & tumble play  Better mathematical Skills & spatial ability (map reading!)  Higher verbal ability  Higher spelling conversational ability  Less Physical  ‘Caring’ less aggressive

10.  Clear Biological differences  Occupational choice differs  Playtime differs in children  To what extent do media stereotypes affect the development of gender?  To what extent do parenting styles affect the development of gender?

11.  Toddler girls tend to play more with dolls and ask for help more than boys  Toddler boys tend to play more with trucks and wagons, and to play more actively  After age 3 years we see consistent gender differences in preferred toys and activities  Children are more rigid in sex-role stereotypes than adults

12.  Gender—cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity or femininity  Gender roles—various traits designated either masculine or feminine in a given culture  Gender identity—A person’s psychological sense of being male or female  Between ages 2-3 years, children can identify themselves and other children as boys or girls. The concept of gender or sex, is, however, based more on outward characteristics such as clothing.

13. Gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling

14. Gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity Children actively develop mental categories of masculinity ad femininity and categorize these into gender categories or schemas Trucks are for boys and dolls are for girls is an example of a gender schema

15.  A unique set of characteristics  Relatively stable over time  What factors affect how our personality is shaped?

16. 1. Genetics 2. Environment

17.  Family traits, physical appearance, similarities, height, hair color, eye color

18.  Dr Thomas Bouchard of the Minnesota Centre for Twin Adoption Research concluded that genetic factors play a huge part in human behavior. The study focused on identical twins who had been raised apart from each other.  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yTCShemS_0&feature=player_ embedded (2.30 mins) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yTCShemS_0&feature=player_ embedded  http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/27/sunday/main3304885.s html (paper article) http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/27/sunday/main3304885.s html  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gwnzW4jOMI (10 mins) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gwnzW4jOMI

19. Mental illness & Environment Cognitive Development & Deprivation Obesity & Environment

21. Attachment in humans, Imprinting in animals – both behaviours promote survival

23.  What environmental factors affect development?

24.  Income  Housing  Nutrition  Education  Access to health facilities  Parenting Styles  Play Opportunities  Weather

25.  Development means change; change can be abrupt or gradual  Two views of human development › stage theories: there are distinct phases to intellectual and personality development › continuity: development is continuous

26.  Physical development begins at conception  Physical maturity sets limits on psychological ability › visual system not fully functional at birth › language system not functional until much later  Prenatal environment can have lifetime influence on health and intellectual ability

27.  Rooting—turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek  Sucking—sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation  Grasping—curling the fingers around an object

28.  Temperament--inborn predisposition to consistently behave and react in a certain way  Attachment-- emotional bond between infant and caregiver

29. Pro-social behavior Cooperation Working together Helping and caring behaviours In children this includes sharing, taking turns, responding to the needs of others Anti-social Behavior Difficulty in getting on with others Aggressive & disruptive In children this includes hitting, bullying, teasing, verbal abuse. hostile non-cooperative

30.  Easy — adaptable, positive mood, regular habits  Slow to warm up — low activity, somewhat slow to adapt, generally withdraw from new situations  Difficult — intense emotions, irritable, cry frequently  Average — unable to classify (1/3 of all children)  Goodness of fit

31.  Parents who are consistently warm, responsive, and sensitive to the infant’s needs usually have infants who are securely attached  Parents who are neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive to infant’s needs usually have infants who are insecurely attached

33.  Authoritarian—value obedience and use a high degree of power assertion  Authoritative (Democratic)—less concerned with obedience, greater use of induction  Permissive—most tolerant, least likely to use discipline  Neglectful—completely uninvolved

34.  Definition: › Parents’ word is law, parents have absolute control.  Misconduct is punished  Affection and praise are rarely given  Parents try to control children's’ behavior and attitudes  They value unquestioned obedience  Children are told what to do, how to do it, and where to do it, and when to do it.

35. Obedient Distrustful Discontent Withdrawn Unhappy Hostile Not High Achievers Often Rebel Children from authoritarian homes are so strictly controlled, either by punishment or guilt, that they are often prevented from making a conscious choice about particular behavior because they are overly concerned about what their parents will do.

36.  Definition: › Middle ground between the two above  Stress freedom along with rights of others & responsibilities of all  Parents set limits and enforce rules  Willing to listen receptively to child’s requests and questions.  Both loves and limits  Children contribute to discussion of issues and make some of their own decisions  Exert firm control when necessary, but explain reasoning behind it.  Respect children’s interest, opinions, unique personalities.  Loving, consistent, demanding  Combine control with encouragement  Reasonable expectations and realistic standards.

37. Happy Mostly self-reliant Mostly self- controlled Content, friendly, generous Cooperative High-achiever’ Less likely to be seriously disruptive or delinquent Children whose parents expect them to perform well, to fulfill commitments, and to participate actively in family duties, as well as family fun, learn how to formulate goals. They also experience the satisfaction that comes from meeting responsibilities and achieving success.

38.  Definition: › Parents allow their children to do their own thing.  Little respect for order and routine.  Parents make few demands on children.  Impatience is hidden.  Discipline is lax  Parents are resources rather than standard makers  Rarely punish  Non controlling, non-demanding  Usually warm  Children walk all over the parents

39. Aggressive Least self— reliant Least self- controlled Least exploratory Most unhappy Children from permissive homes receive so little guidance that they often become uncertain and anxious about whether they are doing the right thing.

40.  Social Isolation leads to serious problems  Normal development requires affectionate contact  Lack of social contact, rather than lack of parent causes the problem  Lesser periods of isolation may be overcome, longer periods cause irreparable damage

41.  Used to study quality of attachment in infants  Observe child’s reaction when mother is present with the child in a “strange” room  Observe the child’s reaction when mother leaves  Observes the child’s reaction when mother returns

42. to age 2Sensory/ Oral 2-3Muscular/ Anal 3-5 Loco motor/ Phallic 6-12Latency/ Latent 12-18Puberty/ Genital 19-35 35-65 after 65 Freud organized psychological development into 5 stages of developing a personality

43. Oral: Babies put things in their mouths Fixation at this stage may been seen in smoking, overeating, excessive talking, nail biting Anal: Learn to control bodily functions Self control vital, anal-retentive = excessive control Perfectionism and strong need for order anal-expulsive = careless, messy

44. Phallic: Discover physical differences between sexes, strong attachment to parent of opposite sex, same sex parent as a rival Can lead to problems like depression, guilt, anxiety

45. Latency: Retreat from that anger ^^^ and repress urges, emotions and impulses remain hidden or “latent” Genital: Conflicts from earlier development surface and gender identity is developed

46.  Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Swiss psychologist who became leading theorist in 1930s  Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers, constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world”  Cognitive development is a stage process

47.  Young Piaget was incredibly precocious › Published first paper at 10 › Wrote on mollusks, based on these writings was asked to be curator of mollusks at a museum in Geneva (he declined in order to finish secondary school) › Earned his doctorate in natural sciences at 21 › Began to study psychology, applying intelligence tests to school children

48.  Assimilation —process of taking in new knowledge or a new experience  Accommodation —process by which we change our way of thinking because of new knowledge  These processes build on the knowledge of previous stages

49.  Assumption that learning is an active process of construction rather than a passive assimilation of information or rote memorization.  Credited for founding constructivism  Has had a large influence on American schools

50.  Best known for idea that individuals construct their understanding, that learning is a constructive process › Active learning as opposed to simply absorbing info from a teacher, book, etc. › The child is seen as a ‘little scientist’ constructing understandings of the world largely alone

51.  Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions  Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults  Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‘stages’ differing in how the world is understood

52.  Believed that all children develop according to four stages based on how they see the world. › He thought the age may vary some, but that we all go through the stages in the same order. 1. Sensori-motor (birth –2 years) 2. Preoperational (~2-7) 3. Concrete operational (~7-11) 4. Formal operations (~12-15)

53.  Information is gained through the senses and motor actions  Child perceives and manipulates but does not reason  Symbols become internalized through language development  Object permanence is acquired

54.  Birth to about 2 years, rapid change is seen throughout  The child will: › Explore the world through senses & motor activity › Early on, baby can’t tell difference between themselves & the environment › If they can’t see something then it doesn’t exist › Begin to understand cause & effect › Can later follow something with their eyes

55.  About 2 to about 7 › Better speech communication › Can imagine the future & reflect on the past › Develop basic numerical abilities › Still pretty egocentric, but learning to be able to delay gratification › Can’t understand conservation of matter › Has difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality (ex: cartoon characters are real people).

56.  Conservation of matter – understanding that something doesn’t change even though it looks different, shape is not related to quantity  Ex: Are ten coins set in a long line more than ten coins in a pile?  Ex: Is there less water if it is poured into a bigger container?

58.  From about 7 to about 11 › Abstract reasoning ability & ability to generalize from the concrete increases › Understands conservation of matter

59.  From about 12 to about 15 › Be able to think about hypothetical situations › Form & test hypotheses › Organize information › Reason scientifically

60.  Development happens from one stage to another through interaction with the environment.  Changes from stage to stage may occur abruptly and kids will differ in how long they are in each stage.  Cognitive development can only happen after genetically controlled biological growth occurs.

61.  Development leads to learning › Drive for development is internal › The child can only learn certain things when she is at the right developmental stage › Environmental factors can influence but not direct development › Development will happen naturally through regular interaction with social environment

62.  Piaget did not think it was possible to hurry along or skip stages through education  Regardless, many American schools will try to teach to the stages in an attempt to accelerate development

63.  Underestimates children’s abilities  Overestimates age differences in thinking  Vagueness about the process of change  Underestimates the role of the social environment  Lack of evidence for qualitatively different stages

64.  Each stage of life has a specific task  You cannot move onto another stage unless you complete the last  Adolescence, primary task is finding your identity

65.  Identity vs. role confusion is the psychosocial stage during adolescence  Developing a sense of who one is and where one is going in life  Successful resolution leads to positive identity  Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity confusion or a negative identity

66. StageAge Psychosocial Crisis VirtueDanger Infancy to age 2 Trust vs. Mistrust HopeWithdrawal Early2-3 Autonomy vs. Shame WillCompulsion Play Age3-5 Initiative vs. Guilt PurposeInhibition School Age6-12 Industry vs. Inferiority CompetenceInertia Adolescence12-18 Identity vs. Identity Confusion Fidelity Role Repudiation Young19-35 Intimacy vs. Isolation LoveExclusivity Adulthood35-65 Generativity vs.Stagnation CareRejectivity Old Age after 65 Integrity vs. Despair WisdomDisdain

67.  Moral development is the gradual development of an individuals concept of right or wrong – conscious, religious values, social attitudes and certain behavior.

68.  Social issues with 2+ solutions Complete the Robin Hood Moral Dilemma:

69.  Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people’s answers  Proposed six stages, each taking into account a broader portion of the social world

70.  Preconventional—moral reasoning is based on external rewards and punishments  Conventional—laws and rules are upheld simply because they are laws and rules  Postconventional—reasoning based on personal moral standards

71.  This theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.  However, movement through these stages are not natural, that is people do not automatically move from one stage to the next as they mature. In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with a given moral dilemma.  According to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. For example, a person in Stage 1 can understand Stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.

72. Pre-Conventional Moral Development  Stage 1 Stage 1  Stage 2 Stage 2 Conventional Moral Development  Stage 3 Stage 3  Stage 4 Stage 4 Post-Conventional Moral Development  Stage 5 Stage 5  Stage 6 Stage 6

73. Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.  Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment  Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished  Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain  Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being Stage 2 – Naively egotistical At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.  Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy  Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous  Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need  Believes that the end justifies the means  Will do a favor only to get a favor  Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does

74. Stage 3 - "good boy-good girl" orientation, This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.  Finds peer approval very important  Feels that intensions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept intentions or promises in place of deeds  Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another perspective Stage 4 – Law and Social Order At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.  Is a duty doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed  Respects authority and obeys it without question  Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority  Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4

75. Stage 5 - Legalistic Social Contract At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.  Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people  Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule  Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual  Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system Stage 6 – Universal ethical Principles Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.  Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social rules and customs  Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected  Believes that the dignity of humanity is sacred and that all humans have value

76.  Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions.   Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept as justice when making moral choices. Other factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.   Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.

77.  For the following moral dilemma, describe a response which might be given by someone in each of the first four stages of Kohlberg's theory.  Jill goes shopping one day with her best friend, Sujatha. Sujatha tries on a jumper and walks out of the shop wearing it under her jacket. Jill is left to face the store's security person who insists that Jill names Sujatha and gives Sujatha's address. The manager of the store tells Jill she will be in serious trouble if she does not disclose Sujatha's name and address. What should Jill do?

78.  Genetics and lifestyle combine to determine course of physical changes  Social development involves marriage and transition to parenthood  Paths of adult social development are varied and include diversity of lifestyles

79.  Old age as a time of poor health, inactivity, and decline is a myth  Activity theory of aging—life satisfaction is highest when people maintain level of activity they had in earlier years

80.  In general, anxiety about dying tends to decrease in late adulthood  Kubler-Ross stages of dying › Denial › Anger › Bargain › Depression › Acceptance  Not universally demonstrated