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3. Personality  Psychodynamic theory  Freud’s model of the mind and personality structure  Psychosexual stages  Defense mechanisms  Neo-Freudians  Projective tests

4. Psychodynamic Perspective In his clinical practice, Freud encountered patients suffering from nervous disorders whose complaints could not be explained in terms of purely physical causes. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Culver Pictures

5. Psychodynamic Perspective Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality which included, the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages and defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Culver Pictures

6. Exploring the Unconscious A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came to their mind (free association) to tap the unconscious. http://www.english.upenn.edu

7. Dream Analysis Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through interpreting the manifest and latent contents of dreams. The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

8. Psychoanalysis The process of free association (chain of thoughts) led to painful, embarrassing unconscious memories. Once these memories were retrieved and released (psychoanalysis) the patient felt better.

9.  Freud’s model of the mind and personality structure  Psychosexual stages of development  Defense mechanisms

10. Model of Mind The mind is like an iceberg. Mostly hidden and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious, stores temporary memories.

11. Personality Structure Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our biological impulses (id) and social restraints (superego).

12. Id, Ego and Superego Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Works on the “pleasure principle” Largely conscious, ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of id and superego. Works on the “reality principle” Superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. The last one to develop in a person. “Your mother’s voice”

13. Personality Development Freud believed that personality formed during life’s first few years divided into psychosexual stages. During these stages the id’s pleasure seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.

14. Psychosexual Stages Freud divided development of personality through five psychosexual stages.

15. Oedipus Complex A boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. Also Electra complex for the girl’s desire for the father.

16. Identification Children cope with threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent. Through this process of identification their superego gains strength incorporating parents’ values. From the K. Vandervelde private collection

17. Defense Mechanisms Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. 1.Repression banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. This is at the root of all defense mechanisms 2.Regression leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.

18. Defense Mechanisms 3.Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex. 4.Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

19. Defense Mechanisms 5.Rationalization offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions. 6.Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or persons… redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

20.  Neo-Freudians  Projective tests

21. The Neo-Freudians Jung believed in the collective unconscious which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species’ past. That is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother as a symbol of nurture (archetypes). Also, we all have Persona vs Shadow, the persona is what we share with others and the shadow we keep to ourselves Carl Jung (1875-1961) Archive of the History of American Psychology/ University of Akron

22. The Neo-Freudians Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions, however these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. A child struggles with the inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. Also studied birth-order. Alfred Adler (1870-1937) National Library of Medicine

23. The Neo-Freudians Like Adler, Horney believed in the social and cultural aspects of childhood growth and development. She countered Freud’s assumption that women have weak superegos and suffer “penis envy” with the idea that men have “womb envy” Karen Horney (1885-1952) The Bettmann Archive/ Corbis

24. Assessing Unconscious Processes Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind perspective would require a psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.

25. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray, TAT is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

26. Rorschach Inkblot Test The most widely used projective test with a set of 10 inkblots was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

27. Projective Tests: Criticisms Critics argue that projective test lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (testing/predicting what it is supposed to). 1.Even trained raters evaluating the same patient come up with different interpretations (reliability). 2.And projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity).

28. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective 1.Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood. 2.Freud underemphasize peer influence on the individual which may be as powerful as parental influence. 3.Gender identity may develop before 5-6 years of age. Modern Research

29. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective 4.There may be other reasons for dreams to arise than wish fulfillment. 5.Verbal slips can be explained on basis of cognitive processing of verbal choices. 6.Suppressed sexuality leads to psychological disorders. Sexual inhibition has decreased, but psychological disorders have not. Modern Research

30. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on repression of painful experiences into the unconscious mind. Majority of children, death camp survivors, battle- scared veterans are unable to repress painful experiences into their unconscious mind.

31. Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud’s theory has been criticized on scientific merits. Psychoanalysis meagerly testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical practice which are after-the-fact explanations.

32. The Humanistic Perspective Humanistic theory Rogerian terms

33. Humanistic Perspective By 1960s psychologists had become discontented with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists. Believed that people are basically good. Emphasis on subjective experiences Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Carl Rogers (1902-1987) http://www.ship.edu

34. Self-Actualizing Person Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Starting with physiological needs we try to reach the state of self- actualization fulfilling our potential. Ted Polumbaum/ Time Pix/ Getty Images

35. Growth and Fulfillment Carl Rogers also believed in individual's self- actualization tendencies. Unconditional Positive Regard, he said, was an attitude of acceptance of others amidst their failings. Michael Rougier/ Life Magazine © Time Warner, Inc.

36. Unconditional Positive Regard According to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person Genuineness-freely expressing one’s feelings and not being afraid to disclose details about oneself Empathy-Sharing thoughts and understanding, listening and reflecting the other person’s feelings (active listening)

37. Assessing the Self All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept. Ideal Self vs Real Self In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive self-concept.

38. Humanism today Humanism has influenced therapy, child- rearing, and the workplace Laid the foundation for positive psychology Applications in education

39. Contemporary Research on Personality Trait theory BIG 5

40. The Trait Perspective An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his personality. This is different than “states” Examples of Traits Honest Dependable Moody Impulsive Allport & Odbert (1936), identified 18,000 words representing traits.

41. Gordon Allport First person to describe fundamental personality characteristics – Cardinal trait (single most dominant and consistent trait) – Central traits (a small number of significant tendencies) – Secondary traits (present but not nearly as defining)

42. Personality Type Personality types, assessed by measures like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, consist of a number of traits, e.g., Feeling type personality is sympathetic, appreciative and tactful. Sympathetic Appreciative Tactful Feeling Type Personality

43. Exploring Traits Factor analysis is a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits. Cattell used this approach to develop the 16 Personality Factor (16PF) inventory. Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

44. Factor Analysis Cattell found that large groups of traits could be reduced down to 16 core personality traits based on statistical correlations. All people are somewhere on this continuum Impulsive Excitement Impatient Irritable Boisterous Basic trait Superficial traits

45. Personality Dimensions Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability- instability.

46. Type A and Type B personalities Type A – Tend to be driven, highly competitive, easy to become angry – More likely to suffer from health-related illnesses due to stress – (Friedman and Roseman study on heart attacks) Type B – More laid-back, easy-going – Tend to live longer

47. Assessing Traits Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once.

48. MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests originally developed to identify emotional disorders. MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.

49. MMPI Test Profile

50. The Big Five Factors Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s 16PF too large. So a middle range (five factors) of traits does a better job of assessment. Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion

51. Endpoints

52. Questions about the Big Five Yes. Conscientious people are morning types, and extraverted evening types. 4. Predict other personal attributes? These traits are common across cultures. 3. How about other cultures? Fifty percent or so for each trait. 2. How heritable are they? Quite stable in adulthood. Though change over development. 1. How stable are these traits?

53. Evaluating the Trait Perspective The Person-Situation Controversy Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points that traits may be enduring but the resulting behavior in different situations is different. Thus traits are not good predictors of behaviors. You don’t always behave according to your traits. Must take into account the situation.

54. The Person-Situation Controversy Trait theorists argue that behaviors may be different from situation to situation, but average behavior remains the same, thus traits matter.

56. Social-Cognitive and Behavioral Perspective Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and his social context. Believed in reciprocal determinism, we make choices in our environment which influence future choices and our experiences, and so on and so on… Albert Bandura

57. Reciprocal Influences Stephen Wade/ Allsport/ Getty Images

58. Individuals & Environments Specific ways how individuals and environments interact. How we view and treat people influences how they treat us. Our personalities shape situations. Anxious people react to situations differently than calm people. Our personalities shape how we react to events. The school you attend, the music you listen to, are partly based on your dispositions. Different people choose different environments.

59. Behavior Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and internal influences.

60. External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate. Social-cognitive psychologists, such as Julian Rotter emphasize our sense of personal control – whether we control the environment or the environment controls us.

61. Learned Helplessness When unable to avoid repeated aversive events an animal or human learns hopelessness. This can lead to a lower sense of self-efficacy This can lead people to doubt their ability to affect their environment and accomplish what they try

62. Optimism vs. Pessimism According to Martin Seligman, an optimistic or pessimistic explanatory style – is your way of explaining positive or negative events.

63. Assessing Behavior in Situations Social-cognitive psychologists observe people in realistic and simulated situations because they have found that the best way to predict behavior of others is in similar situations.

64. Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions and his genetics.

65. Positive Psychology and Humanistic Psychology Positive psychology like humanistic psychology attempts to foster human fulfillment. Positive psychology in addition seeks positive subjective well-being, positive character and positive social groups. Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and communities to thrive. Martin Seligman

66. Exploring the Self Research on the self has a long history, because the self organizes thinking, feelings and actions and is a critical part of our personality. 1.Research has focused on the different selves we possess – some we dream and others we dread. 2.Research on how we overestimate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance and blunders (spot-light effect). 3.Remember the Self-reference effect in recall.

67. Benefits of Self-Esteem Maslow and Rogers argued that a successful life results from a healthy self-image (self-esteem). There are two reasons why low self-esteem results in personal problems. 1.When self-esteem is deflated, we views our self and others critically. 2.Low self esteem reflects reality – our failure in meeting challenges or surmounting difficulties.

68. Self-Serving Bias We accept responsibility for good deeds and successes than for bad deeds and failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile and egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.

69. AP info… Know the schools and at least two people from each How does society and culture influence our view of people Connect this unit to the intro unit, and you will connect this one to the therapy unit later Know strengths and criticisms for each of the theories

70. More AP info… Psychoanalytic (Freud) id, ego, superego Psychodynamic (Adler, Jung, Horney)- relationships Humanistic (Maslow, Rogers) Trait (Allport, Cattell) cardinal, central, Big 5 Social-cognitive (Rotter,, Bandura, Seligman) locus of control, reciprocal determinism, page 631 Behaviorists (Skinner) conditioning, rewards