2. Survivorship curves
What do these graphs indicate regarding species survival rate & strategy? 25
1000
100
Human
(type I)
Hydra
(type II)
Oyster
(type III) 10 1 50
Percent of maximum life span 75
Survival per thousand
I. High death rate in post-reproductive years
II. Constant mortality rate throughout life span
Type I curve is flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, then drops steeply as death rates increase among older age groups. Humans and many other large mammals that produce few offspring but provide them with good care often exhibit this kind of curve.
Type II curves are intermediate, with a constant death rate over the organism’s life span. This kind of survivorship occurs in Belding’s ground squirrels and some other rodents, various invertebrates, some lizards, and some annual plants.
Type III curve drops sharply at the start, reflecting very high death rates for the young, but then flattens out as death rates decline for those few individuals that have survived to a certain critical age. This type of curve is usually associated with organisms that produce very large numbers of offspring but provide little or no care, such as long–lived plants, many fishes, and marine invertebrates. An oyster, for example, may release millions of eggs, but most offspring die as larvae from predation or other causes. Those few that survive long enough to attach to a suitable substrate and begin growing a hard shell will probably survive for a relatively long time.
III. Very high early mortality but the few survivors then live long (stay reproductive)

3. Ideal Survivorship Curves
1,000
100 II
Number of survivors (log scale) 10
Ask some graphical analysis questions:
Which type of curve would best depict the survivorship curve of jellyfish? Type III
Which type of curve would best depict the survivorship curve of a lizard? Type II
III 1 50
100
Percentage of maximum life span 3

4. Population Growth Curves
d = delta or change
N = population Size
t = time
B = birth rate
D =death rate
More graphical analysis questions: Ask students how many more deaths occurred in 2001 than births?
Qualitative Analysis: Locate both time intervals. In 2000, the population of perch was 16,000 in 2001, the population declined to 1600, therefore 4,000 more deaths occurred than there were births. Don’t let students think that it is as simple as 4,000 perch “died”, make sure they understand that births didn’t cease!
Quantitative Analysis: 𝑑𝑁/𝑑𝑡=𝐵−𝐷∴ =12,000−16,000=−4,000, therefore 4,000 more deaths than births between 2000 and 2001.

5. Population Growth Models
WOW! 1 bacterium (reproducing every 20 minutes), could produce enough bacteria to form a layer over the entire surface of the Earth 1 foot deep!

6. Exponential Growth Curves
Growth Rate of E. coli
d = delta or change
N = Population Size
t = time
rmax = maximum per capita growth rate of population
Population Size, N
One of the most common examples of exponential growth deals with bacteria.  Bacteria can multiply at an alarming rate when each bacteria splits into two new cells, thus doubling.  For example, if we start with only one bacteria which can double every hour since it reproduces asexually, by the end of one day we will have over 16 million bacteria.
Time (hours)

7. Logistic Growth Curves
Keep emphasizing that “logistic” means as in “logarithm”.

8. Logistic Growth Curves
d = delta or change
N = Population Size
t = time
K =carrying capacity
rmax = maximum per capita growth rate of population
Ask: What is the carrying capacity (K ) for AIDS according to this graph? 45,000 as of 1995.

9. Comparison of Growth Curves
Exponential population growth results in a J-shaped curve. The J-shaped curve of exponential growth characterizes some rebounding populations. For example, the elephant population in Kruger National Park, South Africa, grew exponentially after hunting was banned. The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its carrying capacity. Exponential growth cannot be sustained for long in any given population.
The logistic model of population growth produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve. A more realistic population model limits growth by incorporating carrying capacity. Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum population size the environment can support. Carrying capacity varies with the abundance of limiting resources. This figure shows population growth predicted by the logistic model. The growth of laboratory populations of paramecia fits an S-shaped curve. These organisms are grown in a constant environment lacking predators and competitors.

10. Growth Curve Relationship
After the curve has leveled off, births and deaths are in balance and the population has zero population growth. This occurs because environmental limitations become increasingly effective in slowing population growth as the population density rises. When the density approaches the carrying capacity, the limitation becomes severe. A density dependent limitation, (K-N)/K, is one whose effect is determined by the density of the very population.

11. Examining Logistic Population Growth
Graph the data given as it relates to a logistic curve. Title, label and scale your graph properly.
Have students graph Number of Individuals or Population Size (N) vs. Time in Years and identify where and when the carrying capacity is reached for the hypothetical population.
Emphasize to students that the “versus” terminology is their friend since it is correctly states as “y vs. x” or “rise vs. run” if they are more comfortable with that terminology. They should know this from math class, but this protocol is not always followed among casually created materials.
So in this case, “Number of Individuals” (y-axis) vs. “Time (years)” are their y and x axes labels. Don’t move to the next slide until you’ve surveyed their graphs for the following: Proper title (Don’t let them get away with just restating the axes), proper labels on axes (units), proper scale, proper curve modeling as opposed to connecting data points “dot to dot” like they did in elementary school!
An example graph follows on the next slide (not in their handout).

12. Examining Logistic Population Growth
Hypothetical Example of Logistic Growth Curve
K = 1,000 & rmax = 0.05 per Individual per Year
The students do not have this slide. Give them an opportunity to correct any mistakes they made on their own graphs before leaving this slide.

13. Population Reproductive Strategies
r-selected (opportunistic)
Short maturation & lifespan
Many (small) offspring; usually 1 (early) reproduction;
No parental care
High death rate
K-selected (equilibrial)
Long maturation & lifespan
Few (large) offspring; usually several (late) reproductions
Extensive parental care
Low death rate
Emphasize that these r-selected and opportunistic are synonyms as are K- selected and equilibrial. It’s the synonyms that will give students fits when they are reading and interpreting test questions!

14. How Well Do These Organisms Fit the Logistic Growth Model?
Have students examine the graph of Paramecium. What is the carrying capacity of the population in the lab? About 900.
How long does it take the Paramecium to reach K? About 10 days.
Have students examine the graph of the Daphnia.
What is the carrying capacity of the population in the lab? About 90.
How long does it take the Paramecium to reach K? About 135 days.
Some populations overshoot K before settling down to a relatively stable density
Some populations fluctuate greatly and make it difficult to define K

15. Age Structure Diagrams: Always Examine The Base Before Making Predictions About The Future Of The Population
Rapid growth
Afghanistan
Slow growth
United States
No growth
Italy
Male
Female
Age
85+
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
Male
Female
Age
85+
80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
Male
Female
Age-structure pyramids for the human population of three countries (data as of 2009). Emphasize to students that they should start their analysis at the BASE of these diagrams since that represents the most current population. Also emphasize they respect the vertical line on these diagrams that delineate male vs. female. Briefly explain why the predictions above each graph are likely to hold true. 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8
Percent of population
Percent of population
Percent of population 15

16. Hydrangea Flower Color
Hydrangea react to the environment and ultimately display their phenotype based on the pH of their soil. Hydrangea flower color is affected by light and soil pH. Soil pH exerts the main influence on which color a hydrangea plant will display.
LO 3.19 The student is able to describe the connection between the regulation of gene expression and observed differences between individuals in a population.
LO 4.24 The student is able to predict the effects of a change in environmental factor on the genotypic expression of the phenotype.
Hydrangeas are fascinating in that, unlike most other plants, the color of their flowers can change dramatically. It would be nice if one could change the color of hydrangeas as easily as it changes in this picture. But for most of us, it is not that easy. The people who have the most control over the color of their hydrangeas are those who grow them in containers. It is much easier to control or alter the pH of the soil in a container than it is in the ground.
Only Hydrangea macrophylla or serrata species have the ability to change color based on the soil pH. There are some genetically altered cultivars that may stay pink or blue, but it is the exception rather than the rule.

17. Fish And Maintaining Homeostasis In Various Water Conditions
Fish and other aquatic animals deal with changing environments in part due to nature and in part due to human interactions.
Pressure- their bladder fills with gas to equalize internal pressure
LO 2.25 The student can construct explanations based on scientific evidence that homeostatic mechanisms reflect continuity due to common ancestry and/or divergence due to adaptation in different environments.
LO 2.26 The student is able to analyze data to identify phylogenetic patterns or relationships, showing that homeostatic mechanisms reflect both continuity due to common ancestry and change due to evolution in different environments.
LO 2.27 The student is able to connect differences in the environment with the evolution of homeostatic mechanisms.
Homeostatic mechanisms:
Homeostatis in mammals

18. Biogeographic Realms
Why do species live where they live? What factors influence dispersal patterns and ranges? Reward reasonable answers!

19. Introduced Species What’s the big deal?
These species are free from predators, parasites and pathogens that limit their populations in their native habitats.
These transplanted species disrupt their new community by preying on native organisms or outcompeting them for resources.
Introduced species are also called non-native or exotic species and are those that humans move intentionally or accidentally from the species’ native region to new geographic regions.

20. Guam: Brown Tree Snake
The brown tree snake was accidentally introduced to Guam as a stowaway in military cargo from other parts of the South Pacific after World War II.
Since then, 12 species of birds and 6 species of lizards the snakes ate have become extinct.
Guam had no native snakes.
As humans have increased their control over transportation, even air transportation, transporting stowaways and introducing nonnative species continues to be a huge concern. Hawaii struggles with this more than any other state in our country.
Dispersal of Brown Tree Snake

21. Southern U.S.: Kudzu Vine
The Asian plant Kudzu was introduced by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture with good intentions.
It was introduced from Japanese pavilion in the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.
It was to help control erosion but has taken over large areas of the landscape in the Southern U.S.
Kudzu is a huge concern and is spreading very rapidly!

22. Introduced Species
Mr. and Mrs. C. E. Pleas meant well.

23. New York: European Starling
From the New York Times, 1990
The year was 1890 when an eccentric drug manufacturer named Eugene Schieffelin entered New York City's Central Park and released some 60 European starlings he had imported from England. In 1891 he loosed 40 more. Schieffelin's motives were as romantic as they were ill fated: he hoped to introduce into North America every bird mentioned by Shakespeare.
Skylarks and song thrushes failed to thrive, but the enormity of his success with starlings continues to haunt us. This centennial year is worth observing as an object lesson in how even noble intentions can lead to disaster when humanity meddles with nature.
 In the intervening hundred plus years the starling population has grown to an estimated million birds all across the US.

24. New York: European Starling
From the New York Times, 1990 (cont.)
Today the starling is ubiquitous, with its purple and green iridescent plumage and its rasping, insistent call. It has distinguished itself as one of the costliest and most noxious birds on our continent.
Roosting in hordes of up to a million, starlings can devour vast stores of seed and fruit, offsetting whatever benefit they confer by eating insects. In a single day, a cloud of omnivorous starlings can gobble up 20 tons of potatoes.
The coloration is magnificent from egg to adult! We can fully understand why Shakespeare included them in his works!

25. Zebra Mussels
The native distribution of the species is in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea in Eurasia.
Zebra mussels have become an invasive species in North America, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Sweden.
They disrupt the ecosystems by monotypic (one type) colonization, and damage harbors and waterways, ships and boats, and water treatment and power plants.
The bottom photo is of a Zebra mussel-encrusted Vector Averaging Current Meter from Lake Michigan.

26. Zebra Mussels
Water treatment plants are most impacted because the water intakes bring the microscopic free-swimming larvae directly into the facilities.
The Zebra Mussels also cling on to pipes under the water and clog them.
This shopping cart was left in zebra mussel-infested waters for a few months. The mussels have colonized every available surface on the cart.
This is alarming!
(J. Lubner, Wisconsin Sea Grant, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)

27. Zebra Mussel Range
They are still spreading at an alarming rate.

28. This slide shows how a population of fish distributes itself over a temperature range. Some of this population is able to exist at the temperature extremes modeled at the outermost points of the curve. This variation is important for population survival especially in the event of climate change. Remind them that pH, light intensity, and other abiotic factors can play a role in survival. Population, like most interactions, is complex and variation give a population the highest chance of survival over generations since many combinations of abiotic and biotic factors can influence survival.

29. INQUIRY: Does feeding by sea urchins limit seaweed distribution?
W. J. Fletcher of the University of Sydney, Australia reasoned that if sea urchins are a limiting biotic factor in a particular ecosystem, then more seaweeds should invade an area from which sea urchins have been removed.
Have students design an experimental protocol. Have them justify their choices.
They should come up with the following options:
From a study site adjacent to a control site,
Remove only the sea urchins
Remove only the limpets
Remove both sea urchins and limpets

30. INQUIRY: Does feeding by sea urchins limit seaweed distribution?
Seems reasonable and a tad obvious, but the area is also occupied by seaweed-eating mollusc called limpets.
What to do? Formulate an experimental design aimed at answering the inquiry question.
Have students design an experimental protocol. Have them justify their choices.
They should come up with the following options:
From a study site adjacent to a control site,
Remove only the sea urchins
Remove only the limpets
Remove both sea urchins and limpets

31. Predator Removal
Ask students to interpret each of the 4 lines on this graph. Answers follow on next slide.

32. Predator Removal
Removing both limpets and urchins or removing only urchins increased seaweed cover dramatically
This is a lesson in “isolating variables”. If anyone in your audience has goals of becoming a research scientist, physician, veterinarian, pathologist or forensic scientist, they need to practice this skill at every opportunity! Since both sea urchins and limpets are predators of the seaweed, removing both SHOULD have a dramatic + effect on seaweed growth compared to the control site. The next step is to examine the data isolating each variable.

33. Predator Removal
Almost no seaweed grew in areas where both urchins and limpets were present (red line) , OR
where only limpets were removed (blue line)
This is still a lesson in “isolating variables”. Removing only limpets had very little effect on increasing the amount of seaweed growth. Removing only limpets also let the sea urchins “chow down” on the seaweed, thus sea urchins have a MUCH GREATER effect than limpets in limiting seaweed distribution.

34. Relationship Between Temperature and Precipitation
LO 1.5
The student is able to connect evolutionary changes in a population over time to a change in the environment. Organisms are impacted by Abiotic Factors

35. of the species involved
Community Ecology
Ask students to cite examples of what they think would be classified as interspecific interactions. Possible answers include: competition, predation, herbivory, symbiosis (parasitism, mutualism and commensalism), and facilitation. Throughout this discussion, we’ll use + and − to indicate how each interaction affect the survival AND reproduction of the two interacting species. For each of the interactions students come up with ask them to apply the +/− to each interaction.
Populations are linked by interspecific interactions that impact the survival & reproduction
of the species involved 35

36. Community Structure
Community−an assemblage of populations living close enough together for potential interaction
Dominant Species−most abundant, highest biomass, powerful control over occurrence and distribution of other species… VA Sugar Maple
Keystone Species−NOT necessarily most abundant, exert strong control due to their ecological roles or niches… Sea Otters!!!
Richness number of species & abundance
Species diversity older = greater diversity larger areas = greater diversity climate = solar input & H2O available
Dominant species are exerting powerful control over occurrence and distribution of other species. They are the most abundant or have the highest biomass. Have students suggest WHY one species dominates an ecological community. Plausible hypotheses include: are competitive in exploiting resources OR are most successful at avoiding predation among others.
Keystone species are not necessarily the most abundant, but exert strong control over communities due to their ecological roles or niche. 36

37. Biodiversity Communities with higher diversity are
More productive and more stable regarding their productivity
Better able to withstand and recover from environmental stresses
More resistant to invasive species, organisms that become established outside their native range
LO 4.21 The student is able to predict consequences of human actions on both local and global ecosystems.
Ask students to first identify some “human actions” that affect ecosystems. Possible answers will most likely include pollution of all sorts or destruction of habitat such as deforestation or damage to coral reefs. Once students identify a “human action”, have them predict and explain the consequences of the human action. 37 37

38. Species Diversity
Species Richness (# of different species) Species Diversity = + Relative abundance
Ecologists often use different types of Indices to quantify species diversity. A diversity index mathematically measures the diversity of community. There are different indices such as: Shannon Diversity, Simpson Diversity Index, etc.
Species diversity of a community is the variety of organisms that make up the community
It has two components: species richness and relative abundance
Species richness is the number of different species in the community
Relative abundance is the proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community
(proportion each different species represents of all the individuals in the community) 38 38

39. Which community is richer?
Species Richness A
Which community is richer?
Community B clearly has an abundance of different organisms as well as more organisms than community A. B 39 39

40. Sample Data
The data below represents the abundance of macro-invertebrates taken from three different river communities in Georgia. A variety of diversity indices may be used to calculate species diversity. Based on the data below, which community has the greatest diversity?
LO 4.21 The student is able to predict consequences of human actions on both local and global ecosystems.
Species diversity is related to both species richness and relative abundance. Species richness is the number of different species in the community and relative abundance is the proportion each species represents of all individuals in the community.
Answer: Community A has more species than either communities B or C. Community B is more abundant in leeches, but has no water penny. Community C only has two species, thus is low with regard to species richness. 40 40

41. Observation Of Sea Otter Populations And Their Predation
Food chain before killer whale involve- ment in chain
(a) Sea otter abundance
(b) Sea urchin biomass
(c) Total kelp density
Number per 0.25 m2
1972
1985
1989
1993
1997 2 4 6 8 10
100
200
300
400
Grams per 0.25 m2
Otter number (% max. count) 40 20 60 80
Year
Food chain after killer whales started preying on otters
The graphs presented illustrate the effect sea otters have on an ocean community when orcas are absent vs. present. Have students examine the graph and discuss the impact on the community when the number of sea otters is reduced.
Their discussion should identify the following points (the “what”), but make them explain “why the what” happens within the food chain:
No orcas present, otters are more plentiful, but urchins are not, thus vegetation is more plentiful.
Orcas present, otters are less plentiful, urchins are more plentiful, thus vegetation is less plentiful. 41

42. Killer Whales vs. Sea Otters Predator-Pray Energetics
The daily caloric requirements for male versus female killer whales (orcas) is shown below:
Male killer whale: 308,000 kcal/day
Female killer whale: 187,000 kcal/day
Calculate the average caloric value of a sea otter assuming a male orca consumes five sea otters each day to meet its caloric requirement.

43. Killer Whales vs. Sea Otters Predator-Pray Energetics
Calculate the average caloric value of a sea otter assuming a male orca consumes five sea otters each day to meet its caloric requirement.
Using dimensional analysis or simple arithmetic:
Students may have just left a chemistry class as a prerequisite to your class and may be skilled at dimensional analysis. Emphasize that either problem-solving method is acceptable. 43

44. Killer Whales vs. Sea Otters Predator-Pray Energetics
Assume a population of 4 male orcas feed solely on sea otters. How many otters are lost to the community over a 6-year period?

45. Interestingly, The Sea Otter Is Not Usually The Orca’s Food of Choice
Why the change?
Some fish populations have declined in recent decades
Shortage of seals and sea lions resulted in killer whales preying on smaller sea otters
Shortage of certain fish caused substantial declines in harbor seals and sea lions 45

46. Why Should We Care About Declining Numbers of Sea Otters?
Sea otters are an important part of the coastal community
The loss of sea otters affects the community directly and indirectly
Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have had a long history of federal protection dating back to 1911 when they were hunted to near extinction—the International Fur Seal Treaty was one of the earliest forms of legislation protecting marine mammals. Despite subsequent federal protection under the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act, southern and northern sea otters continue to be a threatened species. Most recently, the northern population (Enhydra lutris kenyoni) located in southwest Alaska was listed as threatened in Since the 1990's northern sea otters have undergone one of the worst population declines of carnivorous mammals in recorded history—and the Alaska SeaLife Center (ASLC) is trying to find out why. 46

47. Indirect Effect on the Community
A keystone species is one that has a strong effect on the composition of the community
Removal of keystone species causes a decrease in species richness
Sea otters eat sea urchins which are fierce competitors having a diet of kelp
Sea otters and the kelp forest ecosystem have a strong relationship with one another. The strength or robustness of one, often influences the productivity of the other. Often then, are sea otters considered a keystone species, an important species vital to the overall health of ecosystems. ASLC collaborators are currently investigating the benthic invertebrate communities to better understand the overall ecosystem health and how it relates to otter populations in the Aleutian and Commander Island chains. 47

48. Sea Urchin Population vs. Kelp Density
Ask students to examine and interpret the data shown.
When the otters are removed from the community, their main prey, the sea urchin is able to expand their population. Sea urchins are predators of Kelp. The graph above shows the impact on the community when otters are removed. The kelp population is essentially depleted since the sea urchins are unchecked in the community. 48 48

49. Factors that Impact Communities
1. Disease
2. Interspecific Interactions:
Competition
Predation
Symbiosis
Mutualism − mycorrhizae
Commensalism
Ask students to use the +/- notation with regard to the bullets on this slide.
Disease -/-
Interspecific Interactions: Competition +/- Predation +/-
Symbiosis: Mutualism − mycorrhizae +/+ (is a symbiotic (generally mutualistic, but occasionally weakly pathogenic) association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant) AND Commensalism +/0 49

50. Defense Mechanisms
Mullerian-Two or more unpalatable, aposematically colored species resemble each other
Batesian-palatable/ harmless species mimics an unpalatable/ harmful model
Cryptic-camouflage
Aposematic-warning
Cryptic Coloration: -camouflage Aposematic-warning
Mimicry superficial resemblance to another species
Mimicry: Batesian-palatable/ harmless species mimics an unpalatable/ harmful model
Mullerian-Two or more unpalatable, aposematically colored species resemble each other 50

51. Ecological Niches
An organism’s niche is the specific role it plays in its environment…its job!
All of its uses of biotic and abiotic resources in its environment
Ex: oak tree in a deciduous forest
Provides oxygen to plants, animals
Provides a home for squirrels
Provides a nesting ground for blue jays
Removes water from the soil
Ecological niche is a term describing the way of life of a species. Each species is thought to have a separate, unique niche. The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey). 51

52. Ex: Barnacle species on the coast of Scotland
The Niche
Ecological niche is the total of an organism’s use of biotic and abiotic resources in its environment
Ex: Barnacle species on the coast of Scotland 52

53. Succession Pioneer organisms = bacteria, lichen, algae
Ecological succession− transition in species composition over ecological time
Pioneer organisms = bacteria, lichen, algae
Climax community = stable
Primary− begun in lifeless area; no soil, perhaps volcanic activity or retreating glacier.
Secondary an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil intact
The pictures are of Yellowstone Park – on the left after the fires of 1988 and on the right the exact same area after recovering through the process of secondary succession a year later.
Common Misconception- “fire is bad” (it is a natural phenomena in nature). As a matter of fact when this fire started in 1988, the rangers told visitors that it was their policy not to put out fires in the park. The fire expanded through Yellowstone more than they anticipated and by the end of the summer, they began working to put the fire out.
Suggestion: The Succession Game 53

54. Human Impact on Ecosystems
Humans are the most widespread agents of disturbance
Reduces diversity
Prevent some naturally occurring disturbances 54

55. Human Impact on Ecosystems
Combustion of Fossil Fuels
Leads to acid precipitation
Changes the pH of aquatic ecosystems and affects the soil chemistry of terrestrial ecosystems
Chemical compounds that are nonmetal oxides react with water to form acids and are called acid anhydrides. The generic formula for such compounds are COx , SOx , NOx, and POx. When these compounds are expelled as exhaust from automobile or industrial sources, they react with water in the atmosphere and make acid rain. All of the acids formed are “weak” acids (don’t completely dissociate in water), but cause much damage none the less. 55

56. Increasing Carbon Dioxide Concentration in the Atmosphere
Burning fossil fuels (wood, coal, oil) releases CO2
Carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere retain solar heat, causing the greenhouse effect. 56

57. Global Mean Annual Temperature

58. Ecosystems- Matter and Energy
Ecosystems are all about the cycling of matter and the flow of energy. The Laws of Thermodynamics cannot be ignored. 58 58

59. Primary Production http://www.bigelow.org/foodweb/chemosynthesis.jpg
Primary production is the production of organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic carbon dioxide (CO2). It may occur through the process of photosynthesis, using light as a source of energy, or chemosynthesis, using the oxidation or reduction of chemical compounds as a source of energy. Almost all life on earth is directly or indirectly reliant on primary production.
“Primary Productivity” refers to the rate at which that production happens. 59 59

60. Visualizing Matter & Energy
There are a variety of diagrams that help us visualize how energy, biomass, matter, and even number of organisms interact in a particular community or ecosystem. It is important that you look carefully at the diagrams and understand what it says about that ecosystem in terms of matter and/or energy. 60 60

61. Primary Production made by Primary Producers
Gross primary productivity is the total amount of energy that producers convert to chemical energy in organic molecules per unit of time.
Then the plant must use some energy to supports its own processes with cellular respiration such as growth, opening and closing it’s stomata, etc.
What is left over in that same amount of time is net primary productivity which is the energy available to be used by another organism.
The organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or autotrophs. Primary production is distinguished as either net or gross. Net primary productivity accounts for losses to processes such as cellular respiration. Gross Primary productivity does not account for other process that the primary producer may need to utilize energy for themselves.
If any of your students have a part time job, remind them of the difference between their “gross” pay vs. Their “net” pay! 61 61

62. Primary Production
It is important to examine all three graphs above and understand why differences occur in the net primary productivity in various biomes, but most importantly between aquatic biomes and terrestrial biomes.
About 70 percent of the planet is covered in ocean, and the average depth of the ocean is several thousand feet (about 1,000 meters). Ninety-eight percent of the water on the planet is in the oceans, and therefore is unusable for drinking because of the salt. The oceans also have thus also large surface area (graph a, 65%). Primary producers in the ocean account for a high percentage of net primary productivity (graph c), but when equalized over the surface area, their average net primary productivity is quite low (graph b).
Which biome is the most productive per unit of volume/area? Alga beds and reefs
Which accounts for most of the Earth’s O2 production? Open ocean followed by tropical rain forest. 62 62

63. Net Product Pyramid
The diagram above shows the energy that passes to each level in a food chain. Energy in biology is often presented in joules (J), calories (cal), or kilocalories (Cal). One cal= 4.2 joules whereas one Cal=4.2 kilojoules. A small calorie is how much energy it takes to increase the temp of 1 gram of water by 1° C. A large Calorie is how much energy it takes to increase the the temp of 1 kilogram of water by 1° C. The large Calories are equal to 1,000 calories and are the ones you see on food product labels in the grocery store.
This diagram illustrates the 10% rule. As you move up the food chain or web, energy is lost at each level (also referred to as transformation). This is called the 10% rule since only 10% of the energy is available for the next level. Energy flow from an organism, a community, an ecosystem, and the biosphere is an important and central concept. Due to the law of thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed, but each time energy is transformed (when the bird eats the flower), some of the energy is converted to a non-usable form we call heat which makes molecular motion increase, thus also causes an increase in entropy. The energy is not “lost” it is simply transformed to the surroundings as a low quality of energy that we are not able to utilize. 63 63

64. Trophic Level Human Population
Ask students to compare vegetarian diets to carnivorous diets.
Meat eaters require more energy transformations and every transformation involves the loss of energy as heat. 64 64

65. Biomass Pyramids
Biomass refers to dried biological matter that either is living or was recently living. Biomass is measured by obtaining the mass after water has been removed from the substance.
(a) This biomass pyramid shows a Florida bog. This is a a pyramid that students typically associate with a sustainable ecosystem, but there are exceptions to the rule that the primary producers have the largest biomass at any given time as shown in graph (b).
Ask the students to explain the second pyramid (b)
(b) The inverted biomass as shown in the English Channel is possible. A small amount of phytoplankton biomass supports a larger population of zooplankton. The phytoplankton are able to grow very quickly and thus its primary productivity can pass on to the next level in large amounts. So a small number of primary producers grow at a rate so high they can support the primary consumer's energy needs.
I think this slide should go up with the other pyramid slides even though it’s about populations 65 65

66. Pyramid of Numbers
This graphic represents the number of organisms in a field of bluegrass in Michigan. It takes over 5 million primary producers to support 3 tertiary consumers. 66 66

67. The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only change form. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that in each transformation some energy is transformed to heat that increases molecular motion, thus increases entropy. The diagram above is showing that at every transformation, heat is flowing out of the system. This is in agreement with The First Law of Thermodynamics. Some of the of the energy is being transformed by the organisms for their life processes, some is available when they are consumed by the next level, and some is given off as heat. 67

68. Energy Transformation
This illustrates the concept explained on the previous slide.
200 J (biomass eaten by catepillar)  100 J (feces) + 33 J (growth) + 67 J (cellular respiration)
200 Joules = 200 Joules 68 68

69. Biogeochemical Cycle
This slide shows the interaction between geologic processes, abiotic factors and organisms. Matter cycles through the earth in various ways: water cycle, phosphorous cycle, carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle. These cycles along with the sun’s energy provide the base resources for producers that transform them into useable energy for other organisms. 69 69

70. Nitrogen Cycle
Really important! Note the critical and non-replaceable role of bacteria. This link will allow you to relate the story of Biosphere II and its failure due to lack of bacteria for N cycle. Ask students to explain why this is a global cycle 70 70

71. Phosphorus Cycle
Not a global cycle – why not? Because Phosphorus cannot exist in the gaseous phase and thus it can only cycle in its liquid or solid state and does not ever enter the atmosphere. 71 71

72. Water Cycle
Global cycle – In the cycle, water exists in three states; vapor, liquid, and ice. The Sun is the driving force in the cycle. The amount of water on Earth stays fairly constant, but its distribution among the three states may vary. Climate changes could change the distribution of water in the water cycle. 72 72

73. Carbon Cycle Really important! Global cycle – why?
Ask students seemingly simple questions such as: How do animals obtain their carbon molecules? Why do animals have to consume organic carbon compounds?
Many students err by focusing only on the flow of gases (CO2 and O2) and forgetting the movement of carbon in its many other forms. 73 73

74. Nutrient Cycling 74

75. Aquatic Biome Distribution75

76. Terrestrial Biomes
These are often named for predominant plant life and blend into each others without sharp boundaries 76 76

77. Tropical Rain Forest Highland Rainforest Lowland Rainforest
Seasonal Rainforest
Tropical Forest
1. temperature relatively constant at 25 C
2. near equator, >80 inches rain = tropical rainforest
a. greatest plant and animal diversity
b. soils poor in nutrients
c. most animals tree dwellers
d. destruction is causing widespread climate changes
Where Found: South America, S.E. Asia, Central Africa Central America
Plants: rich vegetation in canopy and undergrowth
Animals: colorful insects, lizards, amphibians, reptile, small mammals
Other Characteristics: 200 – 400 cm rain, constant temperature (25o C) 77 77

78. Savanna . Savanna – grassland w/ scattered trees
1. 3 seasons – cool/dry, hot/dry, and warm/wet
2. frequent fires inhibit tree growth
3. large herbivores dominant animal 78 78

79. Desert C. Desert 1. <30 cm. of rain per year, can be cold or hot
2. scattered shrubs, cacti and succulents common
reptiles and seed eaters (many nocturnal)
Where Found: northern Africa, southern Asia, central Australia
Plants: cactus and other non-leafy plants
Animals: lizards, small rodents
Other Characteristics: very little rainfall, although some deserts have seasonal rain 79 79

80. Chaparral- also called Scrubland
Chaparral – scrubland
1. dense, spiny shrubs with evergreen leaves
2. found along coasts
3. maintained by periodic fire 80 80

81. Temperate Grasslands E. Temperate Grassland
1. similar to savanna but in cooler areas
2. ex- steppes in Russia , pampas of Uruguay
large grazing animals and carnivores
Where Found: interior of many continents
Plants: grasses and small leafy plants
Animals: grazers and browsers
Other Characteristics: Large variation in temperature and seasonal changes. Grazing and prairie fires 81 81

82. Temperate Forest Temperate Deciduous Forest 1. midlatitude regions.
2. soil rich in nutrients with even rainfall throughout year
herbs, shrubs, and tall trees grow
Where Found: southern Canada, eastern U.S., Europe, and Japan
Plants: trees that lose their leaves (oak, maple, birch)
Animals: huge variety, including fox, deer, moose, etc.
Other Characteristics: lands cleared by hunting and farming 82 82

83. Taiga
Also called Coniferous or Boreal Forest 1. precipitation usually snow 2. conifers like spruce, fir, hemlock 3. soil acidic and forms slowly
Pacific NW Rain Forest
Lady Bird Grove
Sequoias
G. Taiga (Coniferous or Boreal Forest)
1. precipitation usually snow
2. conifers like spruce, fir, hemlock
soil acidic and forms slowly
Where Found: most of Canada and Asia
Plants: pine trees
Animals: bears, wolves, moose, elk, voles, wolverines, grouse
Other Characteristics: long and cold winter, summers warm enough to completely thaw the soil. 83 83

84. Tundra Characteristics Soil- Layer of permafrost
Light- long periods of darkness
Denali National Park actually includes three biomes: Taiga, Alpine forest, and the Tundra,
Tundra
1. low, shrubby plants
2. Arctic tundra – around N. Pole, very cold, little light for long periods and then 24 hr. days in brief summer
3. alpine tundra – at high elevations 84 84

85. Biosphere
All of the biomes combined make up the biosphere. 85 85

86. Eutrophication- The Algal Bloom
LO 2.24 The student is able to analyze data to identify possible patterns and relationships between a biotic or abiotic factor and biological system (cells, organisms, populations, communities or ecosystems).
Eutrophication can be naturally occurring or man-made. In the picture above, this eutrophication was caused by fertilizers (containing phosphorus and nitrogen) from planned communities.
Eutrophication can occur naturally in ponds or older lake as plant material builds up over time. Natural eutrophication is usually a gradual process, occurring over a period of many centuries. It occurs naturally when for some reason, production and consumption within the lake do not cancel each other out and the lake slowly becomes over-fertilized. While not rare in nature, it does not happen frequently or quickly.
Effects: Negative environmental effects include hypoxia, the depletion of oxygen in the water, food loss, and habitat loss for aquatic organisms. Increase in Oxygen demanding decay (as the algae die).
Point out the obvious, but often overlooked by students, fact that this leads to less O2 in water even though it is a bloom of photosynthetic algae (which one might think would therefore increase O2 levels). The algae die eventually and then the decomposers consume O2 via cell respiration as they “eat” the abundance of dead algae, resulting in less or even no O2; discuss “dead zones.” 86 86