1. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY

2. HISTORY OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY Forensic anthropologists do not study the structure and function of bones – their primary role is to identify each bone, which side of the body it came from and if there is any sign of disease, trauma or “taphonomy.” Taphonomy refers to anything that affects bodies and bones after death such as carnivore scavenging, water damage, tampering with a body after death.

3. HISTORY OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY An interest in anthropology and the studies of human populations came about when the Europeans began to colonize the America’s. As they encountered the indigenous populations, they noticed the differences in appearances, cultures and traditions. Early settlers attempted to classify the Native Americans by their face shapes, heights and what language they spoke. Unfortunately, this was done rather haphazardly without much scientific basis.

4. 1849-1938: FORMATIVE PERIOD Drs Oliver Wendell Holmes and Jeffries Wyman were able to match the skeletal remains of a murder with the suspected victim by matching the height, race and approximate age to determine that the victim was Dr. Parkman, who had been murdered by Dr. John Webster. Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Measurements of living organisms and fossils were studied and the book gave an insight on how natural selection led to human development and evolution.

5. FORMATIVE PERIOD CONTINUED… Thomas Dwight – 1894 at Harvard gave a lecture about human remains being used in the courtroom and is known as the “Father of Forensic Anthropology” During the early 1900s Hamann Todd and Terry collections were established. Most skeleton were from people who were very poor and were examples of how bones responded to poor diet and health. Most showed stunted growth, brittle bones Very limited set of bones that gave little insight into 20 th century skeletons.

6. HAMANN-TODD OSTEOLOGICAL COLLECTION In 1911 in Ohio, laws were passed that would allow anatomy professors to keep the skeletons from the cadavers that were used in medical study. T.W. Todd built a collection of 3600 bodies and 3000 skeletons and built a collection of supporting materials and documents about the bodies. Carl Hamann was very helpful in the organization of this collection.

7. TERRY COLLECTIONS Robert Terry was a anatomy professor at Washington University Medical School. He noticed there was a lack of documented human skeletal remains – both normal and abnormal specimens. His mentor Dr. Huntington was a strong supported of saving cadavers as well for skeletal remains research. Also influenced Dr. Todd. During 1920’s, collected bodies from local hospitals and institutional morgues. Cadavers were those bodies that were not claimed and therefore became property of the state.

8. TERRY COLLECTION 1955-1956: Missouri passed the Willed Body Law – required a signed document that released the body to medical research. Prior to this law, many bodies were those of low socioeconomic standing, however once families were “allowed” to donate their bodies to research, bodies from middle and upper class become more abundant.

9. TERRY COLLECTION Protocol was collecting, cataloging, maceration and storage. Cadavers that were going to be used for the collection were only allowed to be used for soft tissue research by medical students, to leave the skeleton as much intact as possible. Maceration: removing as much soft tissue as possible without damaging the bone. Hot water soak for 72 hours. Drying the bone. To remove some of the fats: the bones were subjected to benzene vapors. Dr. Terry did not want all of the fat removed because he thought it would be helpful in the bone preservation process. The collection being preserved as well as it was is a testament to Dr. Terry’s foresight.

10. TERRY COLLECTION - 60-65% of collection includes anthropometric measurements and photographs of skeleton. - Plaster death masks were made before the cadaver underwent the maceration process. Hair and skin samples are also included in the collection. - The collection was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution to be permanently curated. - Currently – 1728 specimens with known age, sex, ethnicity, cause of death and pathological conditions.

11. CONSOLIDATION PERIOD 1939 - 1971 The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine is published by Wilton Krogerman in 1962 – significant text that is still often used today as a reference. Joint POW/MIA Account Command is formed after World War II in Hawaii. Find, identify and return the bodies of soldiers who died. Still in use and is currently the largest identification lab in the world.

12. MODERN PERIOD 1972-1999 American Academy of Forensic Sciences establishes a discipline for forensic anthropology. 1977 – American Board of Forensic Anthropology is created. 1980 – Dr. William Bass creates the Body Farm at University of Tennessee in Knoxville as a research center for human decomposition and taphonomy. FORDISC – computer program determine sex, ancestry, height from measurements

13. FOURTH ERA: 2000 - PRESENT Ellis Kerley Foundation established to provide funding for forensic anthropological research. JPAC receives accreditation from the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directions.

14. BODY FARM http://www.jeffersonbass.com/photos_da.php?id=7 http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/scienc e/health-human-body-sci/human-body/body-farm- sci/ http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/scienc e/health-human-body-sci/human-body/body-farm- sci/ http://www.documentarylive.com/watch- documentaries/the-body-farm http://www.documentarylive.com/watch- documentaries/the-body-farm

15. HUMAN SKELETAL ANATOMY Skeleton main function is to support the body. It is considered an endoskeleton – and while it is incredibly rigid and strong – it is also rather light weight and allows for easy movement. 206 bones in our body, only 20% of our weight. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes, which are usually related to their function as well. They also help in several biological processes as well – such as producing blood cells, storing minerals and other substances, buffering our blood.

16. SKELETAL ANATOMY Bones are composed of osteocytes – which arise from osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are bone-building cells. Osteoclasts are cells that remove bone. Three main substances compose bones: water, collagen, hydroxyapatite.

17. HYDROXYAPATITE Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 : calcium phosphate derivative. Makes up about 70% of the mass of a bone and provides the strength and rigidity. Bones are mostly made up of tissues that have become hardened – and most of this mineralization of composed of hydroxyapatite.

18. COLLAGEN Protein that is very abundant in the body and provides flexibility for the bones to allow us to perform daily activities with bones cracking under pressure. There are also cells that exist within this matrix of calcium phosphate and collagen. Osteogenesis Imperfecta: Brittle Bone Disease are caused by mutations in 4 genes that are responsible for collagen production. Mutations in the COL1A1, COL1A2 gene result in changes to the amount of collagen produced. Usually very mild forms of the disease. Mutations in the CRTAP, LEPRE1 genes result in misfolding of the protein and secreting of collagen. More serious forms of the disease, much more rare.

19. SKELETAL ANATOMY Cortical Bone: also called the compact bone. Outermost portion of the bone, 80% of mass and dense. About 5-10% porosity – often found in the shaft of the long bone. Trabecular/Cancellous Bone: also known as spongy bone. Less dense and much more porous. Provides ample space for cells, blood vessels, bone marrow. Spongy bone is a honeycomb structure – found at the heads of long bones and inside most other bones. Usually bones that are stress bearing bones.

21. SPONGY BONE Osteocytes: mature bone cells. Regulate bone mineralization and bone resorption (osteoclasts that dissolve the bone). Yellow/Red Marrow Red Marrow: end of bones closest to the trunk of the body: red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Yellow Marrow: shafts of bones: production of white blood cells.

22. IMPORTANT VOCABULARY: PROXIMAL: toward head/trunk of the body DISTAL: away from head/trunk SUPERIOR (CRANIAL) – UPPER INFERIOR (CAUDAL) – LOWER ANTERIOR (VENTRAL) – FRONT POSTERIOR (DORSAL) – BACK MEDIAL – TOWARD MIDLINE LATERAL – AWAY FROM MIDLINE LONGITUDINAL – HEAD TO FOOT SAGITTAL – FRONT TO BACK SUPERFICIAL – TOWARDS SURFACE DEEP – AWAY FROM SURFACE

24. IMPORTANT VOCABULARY DIAPHYSIS: SHAFT OF LONG BONE EPIPHYSIS: PART OF A BONE SEPARATED FROM THE MAIN BODY OF BONE METAPHYSIS: PART OF BONE BETWEEN DIAPHYSIS AND EPIPHYSIS CARTILAGE: TOUGH, FLEXIBLE CONNECTIVE TISSUE, LINES JOINTS FORAMEN: OPENING IN BONE SINUS: CAVITY IN BONE CREST: RIDGE PROCESS: PROJECTION OF BUMP

26. TYPES OF BONE 1.Long Bones: length is much greater than width. Most of the bones that make up our arms, legs, toes and fingers. Exceptions include wrist, ankle and kneecap. Long bones are mostly made of compact bone – with must less spongy bone/marrow. Provide movement. Grow by lengthening the shaft and are capped at the ends with growth plates or epiphyses that fuse by adulthood.

28. TYPES OF BONES 2. Short Bones: Wide as they are tall. Usually responsible for support – and not as much movement as the long bones. Usually Wrist and foot bones are considered short bones. Thin layer of compact, large amounts of bone marrow.

29. TYPES OF BONES 3. Flat Bones: curved/flat. Usually function as a protector of organs or muscle attachment. Skull, scapula, sternum, hip bones, ribs, pelvis. Composed mostly of compact bone, varying amount of marrow. Flat bones are responsible for much of the red blood cell production in adults.

30. TYPES OF BONES 4. Sesamoid bones: bones within tendons to cover a joint. Kneecap/patella is sesamoid bone. 5. Irregular bones: mostly spongy bone, used for protection, attachment and support of muscles. Examples include: hyoid bone – connects tongue to body. Vertebrae. Mandible bone.

33. SKELETAL ANATOMY CONTINUED… AXIAL VS APPENDICULAR SKELETON: Axial skeleton: head, neck trunk Appendicular: limbs Work together through joints, tendons, ligaments. Tendons: muscles to bone Ligaments: bone to bone Mobility, stability, flexibility.

35. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS Question 1: IS IT BONE? Forensic anthropologists must be able to discern whether a substance is a bone, a tooth or another hard substance. If the remains are intact, it is easy to determine whether it is bone by simply comparing it to known bones. However, remains that have been out for long periods of time can be weathered by the environment, damaged by animals. In these cases, bones can look like pottery, stones or other materials.

36. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS The best way to determine whether it is bone or other material is to do microscopic examination. By looking for key features such as the different layers of bones, the bone matrix, blood vessel and comparing them to known reference samples we can determine if it is bone or stone.

39. IVORY VS BONE Ivory is a material that is often mistaken for bones. Ivory is made mostly of dentine. Due to the ban on elephant ivory – sometimes bone is used in place of ivory for carvings, but still hailed as bone. Ivory upon inspection will have a unique grain or pattern. Straight lines that are parallel to the length of the tusk. Perpendicular lines that are circular or V shaped known as Shreger lines that are unique to mammoth or elephant ivory. Bones are incredibly porous and over time these “spaces” turn dark. Although they can be bleached. You would still be able to see the canals and porous surface against the light.

40. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS 2. IS IT HUMAN? Most of the time we simply want to determine whether it is human or animal. We may not be concerned with what type of animal it is, just if it is human or not. Two methods: Macroscopic and Microscopic

41. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS Macroscopic: size, shape and structure by visually looking at it. With proper training, it is relatively easy to discern between animal and human bones. Bones that are stumbled upon by people who aren’t trained usually raise alarms unnecessarily. There have been cases where bear claws that were tossed by a hunter have been mistaken for human hands.

42. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS There are many cases where the bones that an anthropologist is forced to examine are so damaged or such a small piece that it is much more difficult to determine whether or not it is human. In this case, microscopic techniques are used. This is usually done by microscopically examining a cross section of the bone, looking for different orientation and arrangement of the signature features of the bone.

43. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS Question 3: How old is the bone When bones are discovered, often by accident by disturbing a burial site or a construction project – it is important to determine the age of the bones to determine whether the remains have any legal or criminal ramifications. The context of the burial site can often give clues about the time period in which the remains were buried. Colonial Americans used to bury their dead with a cloth that was fastened using a copper. As the copper oxidized, it would leave a green “stain” on the body. When skeletons were discovered that all had this green stain, they were able to place the bones in a historical context.

44. http://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/ archives/entry/skeleton_found_in_upended_tree_o n_green/

45. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS Other observations such as the odor of the bones, whether or not there is any soft tissue still attached to the bones, insect life (entomological analysis), stains or bleaching from the sun can also be helpful in determining the relative age of the bones. In some cases, the bones have been subjected to the elements for such a long period of time that the bones are very frail and brittle. This gives the investigator an idea that an incredibly long time has passed. For very old bones, C-14 dating can be used to determine a relative age of the remains as well.

46. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS Prior to completing a biological analysis of the skeleton to determine “Who is it?”, there are other things that forensic anthropologists take into account that help inform their investigation. 1. What bones are present? 2. How many people are present? 3. Are the remains modern or ancient?

47. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS… Forensic anthropologists will pull the remains and begin to arrange them into their anatomical position. Visual Inventory: Can quickly identify what you have and what you are still missing. Allows for systematic investigation of each bones and examining them for trauma, pathology, unique identifying characteristics. Once the skeleton is laid out in its anatomical position – it can be looked at as a whole and see if there are any patterns in the bone that would indicate trauma.

48. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED. Skeletal inventories allow first responders, searching volunteers and investigators to know what they have so they can focus on what they should be looking for. Finally, if certain elements are missing after a thorough investigation/search – this may give indicators has to what occurred perimortem and possibly a clue to what the perpetrator may have done.

49. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED… How many people are there? To determine how many sets of remains there are, anthropologists will begin to look for duplicate remains. When two skeletons are found together, they are said to be comingling. If they find two femurs, will begin examining those bones to determine if they came from the same person or not. Knowing how many bodies are present can be very important if a crime has been committed. It is important to be able to determine the number of victims, were they killed together or dumped there over a long period of time.

50. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED… North America and other parts of the world have been inhabited by several different cultures. As they have had to bury their dead, they often do so in accordance with their own customs and traditions. The burial site can give investigators many clues as to whether or not it was a modern or ancient burial. The context and decomposition of the body will provide a lot of information. Modern dental work and clothing vs objects that are associated with Native American are more likely to be someone buried a long time ago. More modern burials will often be investigated more thoroughly to ensure that there is no criminal aspect to the burial.

51. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS Question 4: Whose Bones is it? Biological Analysis This is considered a biological profile: attempt to identify the person. While DNA testing would be ideal, anthropologists can run into a number of problems with doing a simple DNA test. How much DNA is present to use for analysis. Even with modern day PCR techniques, skeletal remains can often be very difficult to get usable DNA from. How can we use their DNA to identify a set of remains if we do not have a DNA profile stored in a database?

52. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS Because investigators can rarely use DNA to confirm an identity, they are left to analyze the remains. The condition of the bones as well as how many bones are excavated have a dramatic effect on how well an anthropologist can conduct an analysis. They want to answer questions such as: how old was the person at the time of death, man or woman, how tall.

53. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL QUESTIONS General Description: After studying the body, anthropologists have recognized similar patterns within the human body. One of the important patterns that has been recognized is the relationship between the size of bones and the person’s stature. This is known as an allometric relationship and allows anthropologists to estimate how tall a person might have been even though they may not have a full skeleton.

54. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS How much of the skeleton is found and which bones we have available to us is closely related to how successfully we can estimate the person’s height. The best way of estimating height is literally measuring the skeleton, if it is recovered intact. However, that is not always the case.

55. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS The long bones are the ones usually used to determine height: Femur, Tibia, Humerus. The bones are measured – and this is known as osteometry. Mathematical formulas have been developed – and take into consideration different populations. Different formulas are used for men, women and different ethnicities. Once the bones have been measured and plugged into the formula, heights are provided as a range.

56. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Our best guess is to give a range of heights, because we know that our stature is not a constant throughout the course of our life. In addition – because we are often comparing these measurements to a driver’s license or legal document, problems arise when people are not accurate when reporting their height.

57. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS It is often nearly impossible to estimate the weight of the person, as fat layers leaves no “evidence” behind on our bones. Again, the context of the burial site – and any clothes may give us an indication of their size. Muscles do actually leave markings on the bone – muscles that are used more frequently and developed will often the tendons used to keep the muscles in place will leave behind markings on the bone itself. If soft tissue is still intact, the muscles themselves may give us an indication of whether or not they were an athlete, their “handedness” and even their teeth can tell us a lot of information.

58. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS 2. Sex of remains For many obvious reasons – it is incredibly useful to know whether or not the remains belonged to a male or female. There are several key differences or sexual dimorphisms between men and women skeletons. The most important bones to consider are the pelvic bones, skull and long bones.

59. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Because of the hormonal and biological differences that exist between men and women, this often presents itself as different physiological traits.

60. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS The pelvis bones are not as useful when dealing with a pre-pubescent set of remains, because most of these changes occur during and after puberty. Not enough sexual dimorphism to be useful. In addition, there is a tremendous amount of variation within people of the same sex.

61. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Pelvis Bones: Most commonly used to determine sex. About 95% accuracy The pelvis is a point where the axial and appendicular skeletons connect and is made up of several bones: 2 hip bones, the sacrum and the coccyx. Generally speaking: - Women generally have wider pubic bones to accommodate childbirth - Female pelvic bones are wider and the aperture is more circular.

62. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Symphysis Pubis: located on the front of the pelvis and is where the two hip bones meet. Subpubic angle can be measured here. Men happen to be sharper and narrower – female is much broader. The sciatic notch can also be examined.

63. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Female Male

65. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Another difference between male and female skeleton occurs in the skull. Male skull: more massive. Jaw bones larger, more square shaped. Where the muscles attach to skull are more pronounced (Mastoid process) Female skull: more angular, delicate

67. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Other differences: Men tend to have stronger, sturdier long bones due to having to bear more weight. The female femur is lighter, less muscle attachment ridges. This is also to be taken with caution – because there is a great variability between the same sex and ethnicity. We use these features together to point us in the right direction, and to narrow down the pool of potential people we are trying to identify.

68. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Over the course of our lives, ossification occurs at 800 points around the body during fetus development – at birth there are about 405 centers and they will eventually fuse to form 206 bones in the body. As they fuse, we can often observe zigzag seams. By age 30, most of our bones have completely fused. Therefore, to determine age past that point, we look at how bone degenerates.. One of the most common examples is a baby’s “soft spot.” At birth, we have many small bones that have not fused yet – which gives our cranium a lot of flexibility.

69. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS In the long bones, ossification proceeds in a sequential manner: The shafts begin ossification – in the diaphysis and ossification moves to the ends of the bones – the epiphyses. Eventually the epiphyses and diaphysis fuse together and form one complete bone. This fusion occurs at different points in our life, depending on the bone. So by looking at how many bones have completed this fusion, and having a good idea of when these processes happen – you would be able to estimate the age of an individual.

70. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Age at time of death: our bodies change as we age, and our bones are a reflection of that. As we get older, bones fuse and cartilage becomes bone (ossification) and there are several markers in this process that will give us a good idea of the age of remains.

72. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS

73. Notice the lines between the longer shafts of the bones and the tips. This x-ray is taken of young knee, where those two parts have not fused yet.

74. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS As our skulls fuse together, anthropologists will often notice zig zag lines where the fusion takes place, called sutures. These sutures can also be used to determine age, up to a certain age.

75. By your late 20s, most of your bone fusion has finished, and now cannot be used accurately to estimate age. Instead, bone degeneration is used to estimate age. Joint are a common place to study bone degeneration and particularly in the pelvis. The pubic symphysis changes over the course of the life time – the two pubic bones change from a rough surface to becoming much smoother over time. The 4 th rib can also be used: the cartilage between the end of the rib will eventually turn to bone and fuse to the sternum over the course of time. Skull sutures appear more “open” in young people but as we age the sutures fade away and in the elderly they seem invisible. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS

77. Teeth are another reliable resource to use for estimating the age of the deceased. As you all know, you have two sets of teeth: deciduous teeth and permanent teeth. Eventually, permanent teeth replace the “baby” teeth until 32 permanent teeth are formed and visible above the gum line. In some cases, our wisdom teeth – never appear – although if they do, it typically occurs around 18 years old.

78. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS The pattern of tooth eruption can be particularly useful for estimating the age of young people, less than 20 years old. If baby teeth are still present, a victim can be estimated to be less than 12 years old, while the lack of wisdom teeth can lead you to conclude that the victim is less than 18- 20 years old.

79. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS The wear and tear on teeth can speed up by poor diet, hygiene or culture practices. However, we often find this in the teeth of the elderly. So it is important to take all of this into consideration. Upon investigating, the presence of dentures will also indicate an elderly victim.

80. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Ancestry of the Decedent: perhaps the most difficult biological feature to determine. An educated guess at best. Typically the nose, face, head shape, stature and body proportions will provide the most information.

81. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Caucasian victim: high bridged nasal bone, narrower face. Chin is more pronounce and relatively flat cheek bones. The upper incisors (teeth) will have a flat lingual surface. (Surface closest to the tongue). Negroid skull: broader nose ridge, wider nasal opening and subnasal grooves. The jaws are more outward sloping and the lingual surfaces are also flat. Mongoloid: Lower nose bridge. Skull tends to flatter, broader and the cheekbones are forward sloping and almost wing like. The lingual surface of upper incisors are shovel shaped.

82. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Personal Habits/Individual Characteristics: Genetic, lifestyle, nutritional, disease, previous injuries can all be incredibly helpful when trying to identify a set of remains. In terms of lifestyle, it would be helpful to determine what kind of job the victim held: Repetitive movements due to a job will leave their mark on bones, as excessive wear and tear or even arthritis. A very physical, load bearing job will result in “sturdier” bones due to the need to bear more weight. Can determined “handedness” or athlete vs non- athlete.

83. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Dental history is the most obvious indicator of medical history. Now that we have x-ray records of most peoples teeth, an x-ray can be performed on the teeth from a victim to try to determine a match. Any broken bones will also be spotted in an xray and can be compared to medical records, metal plates are easily detectable and will often contain a serial number that is recorded at the time that it is “introduced” into the body.

84. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Nutritional disorder: when certain vitamins and minerals are missing from diet – particularly iron – the marrow space in bone becomes enlarged – particularly in the skull. Vitamin C and D deficiency: scurvy and rickets – bones are not mineralizing properly and become too soft and too pliable to carry the weight of your body.

85. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Certain diseases such as tuberculosis, osteoporosis, cancer, syphilis and Paget’s disease will also affect bones.

86. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Syphilis: sexually transmitted disease associated with bacterium: treponema pallidum. It belongs to a group of bacteria called the Treponomes – which cause non venereal forms of the disease. The venereal form of the disease most likely arose from one of the non-venereal forms through a series of mutations.

87. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS In 1987, Bruce Rothschild reported the chemical signature of syphilis in skeletal remains of an 11,000 year old bear. In human, the earliest signs are approximately 2000 years ago. Researcher dispute how syphilis arrived in the “Old World” as it had reached epidemic levels by 1500. Most researchers agree that Columbus and his crew brought it back when they returned from the New World. Although, there is some evidence that it was present in the Old World prior to this.

88. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Other researchers believe the disease could not have come from the New World exclusively. Remains have been discovered that also show tell tale signs of the disease. They have hypothesized that the disease may have originated out of Southeast Asia which may explain the migration pattern both to the Old World and the New World.

89. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Syphilis presents itself in 4 stages, with the 4 th stage being the evidence that is left behind in the bones: Thickening of the lower leg bones and cranial damage. Thickening of the thigh bones, erosion of the skull’s frontal bones, sabre-like thickening of shin bones and perforation of the palate. While syphilis affects virtually every part of the body in the 4 th stage, we are only left to draw conclusions based on the skeletal remains.

90. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS Friars that were excavated in 1994 from a friary that was established in 1316-17. 245 skeletons were found, 207 were complete and it is estimated that at least 60% showed evidence of syphilis. One particular skeleton: 1216: a male between 25-35 and had all of the signs of syphilis. Carbon dating estimated him to have been alive around 1300 – 1420AD – much earlier than Columbus’ voyage.

91. GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS A second dig of “old” bones from an area near Pompeii led investigators to a similar conclusion. However, there is a lack of dental evidence. Upper central incisor teeth that were affected by congenital syphilis will often have grooves which are “proof” Local Latin medical journals from the time support the “epidemic” of syphilis in early Europe – pre Columbus.

92. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION Facial reconstruction try to blend the skeletal remains with the biological profile that we have discussed. As technology improves, the techniques to accomplish have drastically improved.

93. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION Overlay process: comparing a photo of the person to a photo of the skull. The two photos have to be scaled to match each other in size and proportion of key features. The photos are then superimposed and how much agreement between features will either support the identity match or dispute it. This method only works well when there are key features of the skull that are unique, such as a unique nasal bone or a feature with a unique size.

94. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 2 Dimensional: incorporates both the skull and anthropological data related to skin tissue depth. Artists construct a drawing or likeness based on what the skull looks like and how the tissue was most likely arranged on the skull. Tissue depth markers are placed on the a photocopy picture of the skull and then tracing paper is placed over that so the artist can give the face more fullness where skin, tissue, muscles would have been. This is then compared with a potential photograph and the artist can put these two things together and create a final sketch.

95. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION 3D Facial Reconstruction: very similar to the 2D process: but instead of the tissues being simply drawn, they are sculpted out of clay. Both of these methods use depth markers that will give an artist an idea of how the tissues would have been on the face. The brow ridge, distance between orbits, shape of nasal cavity, shape of nasal bones, chin, cheekbones all will influence what your face actually looks like. It is not an exact process, we will not be able to determine hair color, eye color, shape of the lips, how how much fat was also present.

96. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION Initially the skull is cleaned, to clear away any leftover tissue that was found with the remains. They use round, rubber markers (usually at least 20) are placed on the specific points around the actual skull. These are used to indicate the depth of the flesh at those particular locations. This is done using statistical data after studying peoples skulls, and how that relates to their actual “face”.

97. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION The depth of the flesh is dependent on male or female, different ethnicities, age, and what the estimated weight of the person was. The artist then uses strips of clay to join these rubber markers, and then clay is put underneath to act as supporting “flesh.” Facial muscles are added, which are estimated based on the size and shape of the actual facial bones. Wrinkles can also be created based on the approximate age of the remains. Finally: eyes, ears, nose are added and the skin an be colored. The hair color and style would be added. These are some of the most distinguishable and memorable features of a person for identifying, however – these are approximations and without any other data – they are just estimates.

98. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION http://anthropology.si.edu/writteninbone/co mic/activity/pdf/Facial_reconstructions.pdf

99. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION Computerized facial reconstruction offers significant advantages because of the speed in which it can convert digital images of the skull into 3D likeness. The skull is rotated and a laser is bounced off the skull and this produced a digital image of the skull. Then the computer can use databases to estimate muscle, fat, skin to place over the skull. Another advantage is that it is non-destructive to the skull and if there are errors made or more information is discovered – these changes can be made seamlessly.

100. FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION Some of the problems with facial reconstruction is that the data that we use to create the tissues, fat and skin are highly variable and are an estimate at best. Also – some of our features that we see aren’t strongly supported or visible in the skeletal remains. The shape and size of our lips, ears, eye color, hair – usually most identifiable.