1. Western Civilization II HIS-102 UNIT 1 – The Reformation

2. Europe at 1500  Rebounding from the terrible 14 th century  Population was starting to increase into pre-plague levels  The economy was expanding, including trade and colonialism  Stronger monarchs  National monarchies created in England, France, Spain, and Poland  Had secure holds on their thrones  Catholic church had survived upheavals by radical groups  Suppression of heresy  Included the Lollards in England and the Hussites in Bohemia  Popular devotion had increased  Then comes the Protestant Reformation

3. The Reformation  Reformation started as a movement to reform the Catholic Church  Backlash  Broke the monopoly of the Catholic Church  Rise of Protestantism  Bloody wars that tore Europe apart for over a century  Church was in desperate need of reform  The clergy were uneducated and often corrupt  The popes were unable to provide spiritual leadership  There was a rise of popular religion

4.  Europe (c. 1519)

5. The Holy Roman Empire  The Reformation begins in Saxony  This was part of the Holy Roman Empire  Holy Roman Empire  Conglomeration of small states under the control of the Holy Roman Emperor  Very unlikely place for the Reformation to have started  It was not a unified country  Renaissance had affected Germans the least and they remained very religious  At the same time, they believed that the were the greatest victims of Church abuses

6. The Holy Roman Empire  Charles V (1519-1558)  Was elected HRE on June 28, 1519 at the age of 19  Represented the peak of Habsburg power  Had control of a vast empire when he took the position  Spain (and its overseas empire)  Spanish Netherlands (aka the Low Countries)  Lands in Austria and Hungary  Kingdoms of Naples and Sardina, and Bohemia  He wanted full control over his lands  Included unifying it under one faith: Catholicism

7.  Lands Controlled by the House of Habsburg in 1556

8.  Martin Luther  (1483-1546)

9. Martin Luther (1483-1546)  Martin Luther (1483-1546)  He was born in Saxony  Under pressure from his parents, Luther attended the University of Erfurt to study law  “Spiritual Awakening” (1505)  Occurred on his way home from school  Joined the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt soon after  Monastic Years  Reflected on how he was to achieve his own salvation  He constantly prayed, fasted, and went on pilgrimages  Nothing he did was able to give him the peace he sought after

10. Martin Luther (1483-1546)  The problem of the justice of God  How could God issue commands man could not obey?  If you did not obey, you were doomed to eternal damnation  Path to salvation  Catholic church believed salvation was through both good deeds and faith  Luther did not believe any person could do enough good works to be saved  Turn to academia  His superior, Johann von Staupitz, told Luther that he should try an academic career  Became a professor of theology and the Bible at the University of Wittenberg

11. Martin Luther (1483-1546)  “Tower Experience” (1513)  Luther came across the passage “the just shall live by faith alone” in St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1:17)  “Justification” meant God turning a sinner into a righteous person eligible for salvation  Those who are saved are done so through faith only  This was a huge revelation for Luther  God’s justice does not depend on “good works” and religious ceremonies  Humans are saved by grace alone  This became known as “justification by faith alone”

12. Martin Luther (1483-1546)  Salvation and the Catholic church  The church (sacraments) and the believer (piety and charity) could affect salvation  The church “quantified” the process of salvation  The “Treasury of Merits”  The indulgence  Remission of the penitential obligations imposed by priests  Indulgences earned by demanding spiritual exercises (eleventh and twelfth centuries)  Indulgences granted with a monetary payment  Indulgences seen by many as just another form of simony  Namely, selling grace in return for cash

13.  Albert of Hohenzollern  (1490-1545)

14. Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)  Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)  Was the archbishop of Magdeburg and the administrator of the diocese of Halberstadt  Received these jobs when he was only 23 years old at the time  In 1514, Albert purchased the Archbishopric of Mainz  Had to take out a loan of 21,000 ducats (~ $1 million in 2010)  As this was a significant amount, he had to come to an agreement with Pope Leo X  The Deal  Albert would be given permission to sell indulgences  Half of his income would be sent to Rome to help pay the cost of the building of St. Peter’s Basilica  The other half would go to paying off his loans

15. Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)  Johann Tetzel (1465-1519)  Dominican monk hired by Albert to sell indulgences throughout northern Germany  His slogan: “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs”  Luther is very upset about this  Believed people were saved by faith, not good deeds or by buying indulgences  “Disputation of Martin Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences” (1517)  Attached to a letter to Albert on October 31, 1517  Luther condemned him for his sale of indulgences

16. The 95 Theses  Luther then nailed a copy of the “Disputation” to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same day  He did not believe he was breaking any church laws  They were not direct attacks against the church  It was written in Latin with the intention of promoting scholarly debates  The Theses were incredibly popular  Sales of indulgences dropped dramatically in 1518  Albert forwarded a copy of it to the papacy  Pope Leo X actually dismissed Luther as a “drunken German” in 1518

17. The 95 Theses  Examples:  82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.“  86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is today greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"

18.  Luther nailing the 95 Theses to the church door

19. Break With the Church  Leipzig Disputation (June 27-July 4, 1519)  A theological debate was held in Leipzig  In arguing about papal supremacy, Luther said that the pope and all clerics were fallible  Instead of relying on the pope as the highest spiritual authority, one should look to the Scripture for truth  In 1520, Luther started to break from the church  Published a series of pamphlets putting forth his ideas  Main ideas  Justification by faith alone  The “priesthood of all believers”  The primacy of Scripture

20. Break With the Church  Another key point was that if it is not in the Bible, it should not be followed  Denied transubstantiation and promoted consubstantiation  The dissolution of all monasteries and convents  Reduced the number of sacraments from seven to two (baptism and the Eucharist)  End of the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy of popes and bishops  Substituting German for Latin in church services  He also argued that the clergy should marry since while “virginity was good, marriage is better, and freedom of choice is best”

21. Break With the Church  Why was Luther so successful?  The role of the printing press in spreading Luther’s message  Luther’s defiance touched off a national religious revolt against the papacy  Popes bribed the cardinals to gain the papacy  Moral corruption  Popes waged war to gain territory  There were no agreements (concordats) between pope and German emperor  Princes complained that taxes were too high  Many German princes sided with Luther as a way to attack Roman influence and corruption

22. Break With the Church  Other factors:  Peasants hoped Lutheranism would free them from the exactions of their lords  Towns and princes were trying to consolidate their political independence  Nationalist demands for liberation from foreign popes  From reforming the church to a frontal assault on the church  On January 3, 1521, the pope issued the official decree of excommunication  This stated that Luther was officially a heretic  Frederick the Wise of Saxony intervened on Luther’s behalf  He requested a fair hearing for Luther in front of the Imperial Diet

23.  Luther at the Diet of Worms

24. Diet of Worms  Diet at the city of Worms (April 17-8, 1521)  Charles V was in attendance  Many expected Luther to recant his writings in order to avoid persecution  Luther was asked to recant the “heresies” in his works  “Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple replay, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.”

25. Diet of Worms  Edict of Worms of 1521 (May 8, 1521)  Issued by Charles V  It reaffirmed Luther’s position as a heretic and political outlaw  It stated that all of Luther’s writing were to be burned  Luther had left Worms by this point  Kidnapping  Frederick the Wise orchestrated the kidnapping of Luther  Luther spent over a year in hiding under his protection at the castle of the Wartburg  Luther spent his time in hiding working on building a new reformed church

26.  Wartburg Castle

27. Support of the German Princes  Key to the survival of Lutheranism lay in the support of the German princes and free cities  No matter how popular it was, the movement could easily be crushed  Some rulers were effective at limiting the power of the Catholic Church  They sought to control appointments to church offices and restrict flow of money to Rome  Statute of Praemunire (1353) gave the English courts supremacy over papal courts  In 1487, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain were granted the Spanish Inquisition  Concordat of Bologna (1516) gave the French king the right to choose bishops and abbots

28. Support of the German Princes  German princes did not have nearly as much power  Did not have large enough armies to assert their positions  Were unable to gain concessions from the church  Lutheranism was an attractive option  There was no church hierarchy so there were no church officials to challenge their authority  This gave the princes more power than they ever had before  Luther used this to his advantage  He encouraged the princes to confiscate church lands and its wealth as a way of gaining their support  He also got them involved in organizing and guiding the new Lutheran churches

29. Support of the German Princes  However, the princes could not just embrace Lutheranism  They had to wait to see what Charles V would first  If Charles took notice, he would send in troops from all over Europe to crush the movement  Charles was preoccupied with more pressing matters  He was involved in one war with France and another one with the Ottoman Turks  Hoped Pope Clement VII would take care of the Protestant threat in the Holy Roman Empire  Clement was more fearful of Charles’ growing power in Italy so he joined the French in against Charles

30. Support of the German Princes  Clearly, Charles was unwilling to defend Catholicism in the Empire  Because of this, many princes joined the Lutheran movement  Some joined for pious reasons  Others joined for economic and political ones  Many free cities also converted to Lutheranism  They too could now control the politics of their cities without the interference of bishops or other church officials  This meant that Lutheranism was able to flourish in those areas

31.  Swiss Confederation

32. Reformation in Switzerland  The Swiss still were part of the Holy Roman Empire  In 1499, they were able to defeat Emperor Maximilian and were able to gain some autonomy  The Swiss Confederation  Consisted of six forest (rural) cantons and seven urban (city) cantons  No one person had control over Switzerland  The members of the cantons decided what they wanted  The Swiss had strong loyalties to their local governments  Deeply resented the papacy getting involved in Swiss affairs  The Protestant movement came to Switzerland in 1520

33.  Ulrich Zwingli  (1484-1531)

34. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)  Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)  Graduated from the University of Basel with a Master’s Degree in Divinity  Was exposed to the writings of the northern Humanists  Appointment as People’s Priest (December 11, 1518)  This was at the Great Minster in the city of Zürich  The position gave him little income or influence but gave him many opportunities to preach to the public  On January 1, 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon  As part of it, he read from a Greek Bible and gave his own interpretation of it  His speech was entirely based on the scriptures  This had a sensational impact on the attendees

35. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)  With this popularity, he continued on with similar sermons  Bubonic plague hit Zürich in August 1519  Zwingli tended to the sick  He eventually caught the plague himself but survived  This had a huge impact on Zwingli’s teachings  He became more serious in his reforms of the church  It was also at this time that he secretly broke away from the Roman Church

36. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)  Zwingli’s theology was similar to Luther  Believed that Catholic theology and practice conflicted with the Gospels  Disagreed with many of the practices of the Church including fasting, pilgrimages, monastic vows, celibacy, penance, and purgatory  Condemned religious images and hierarchical authority  Disagreed with Luther about the Lord’s Supper  Luther believed that “this is my body” meant that Christ’s blood and body were present “in, with and under” the wine and bread  Zwingli believed it represented Christ’s blood and body  This prevented any cooperation between the two

37.  John of Leiden  (c.1509-1536)

38. Anabaptists  Anabaptists  “Anabaptism” means “rebaptism”  Radical reformers in Switzerland and northern Germany  Were originally part of Zwingli’s movement in Zürich but were deemed too radical  Their main ideas included:  Adult baptism instead of infant baptism  Men and women are not born into any church but join one  The belief that anyone could be a priest and therefore the community should elect its leaders  True pacifists  Feared by both Catholics and Protestants

39. Anabaptist  Settled in Münster in the 1530s  First location where they were allowed to remain  Attracted more Anabaptists to the city  They wanted to change the city to a theocracy  On January 5, 1534, they took full control of the city  One of the leaders, John of Leiden, took the title of “King of the New Temple”  Reforms were instituted throughout the city  Anabaptist religious practices became mandatory  Private property was abolished  Common ownership was introduced  Polygamy was allowed

40. Anabaptists  Catholic troops lay siege to the city in spring 1535  Led by the Bishop of Münster  On June 24, 1535, they were able to successfully retake the city  John of Leiden and two of his lieutenants were tortured to death  Their bodies were pulled apart with red-hot pokers and they were killed with a dagger through the heart  Their bodies were then put in cages, which hung from the steeple of St. Lambert's Church, to rot and were eventually removed 50 years later  Remaining Anabaptist groups were heavily persecuted throughout Europe

41.  Execution of the Anabaptist leaders

42.  Cages at St. Lambert’s Church

43.  John Calvin  (1509-1564)

44. John Calvin (1509-1564)  John Calvin (1509-1564)  Born in Picardie, France  From an early age he was expected to enter the church  He received an MA in theology from the University of Paris  When his father fell out of favor with his church friends, he insisted Calvin to go into law so instead  Calvin received his law degree from the University of Orleans  When his father died in 1531, Calvin returned to theology and moved back to Paris  While there, he became involved in a reform movement that was based upon Humanism

45. John Calvin (1509-1564)  France at this time was not a safe place for Protestants  Calvin spent a few years traveling around Europe  Calvin’s theology  Laid out in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)  Believed in the omnipotence of God  Because of Adam’s sin, all men were born sinners and were doomed to a life of sin  Nothing that we do on earth affects where we end up in the afterlife  God predestines some humans for salvation (the Elect)  Called for an active life of piety and morality  Calvin was strongly influenced by St. Augustine

46. John Calvin (1509-1564)  In 1541, Calvin was given the opportunity to create a theocracy in Geneva  He had already been to the city in 1536 but was kicked out after his theology was deemed too radical  Calvin’s theocracy  Rejected the Catholic church hierarchy and the pope  Replaced them with assemblies of ministers and electors  The main authority was the Consistory  Main job was approving religious law  Also supervised all public and private morality in the city  “Four bare walls and a sermon”

47. John Calvin (1509-1564)  Calvin’s theocracy was incredibly successful  Many Protestants throughout Europe were influenced by him  John Knox (c. 1513–1572) started his reform movement in Scotland based on Calvinism (Presbyterians)  Dutch Reformed Church in Holland  Puritans in England  Huguenots in France

48.  Henry VIII  (1491-1547)

49. Reformation in England  Reformation in England was very different than the rest of Europe  England was not affected by the papacy and church abuses as other countries  Main reason behind it was political rather than religious  It was rooted in Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon  Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536)  Spanish princess, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella  Originally married to Henry’s older brother, Arthur, for five months before he died

50.  Catherine of Aragon  (1485-1536)

51. Henry VIII (1491-1547)  Henry VII did not want to lose the alliance with Spain  He suggested that his other son, Henry, would marry Catherine instead  This was not permitted by Church law  Prohibited marriage of a man to his brother’s widow  Catherine said that she never consummated her marriage with Arthur  Thus, they were able to receive a papal dispensation from Pope Julius II in 1503 and got married in 1509  Catherine was unable to give Henry a son  She had a number of stillbirths  Those that did survive died shortly after birth  She did give birth to a daughter, Mary, in 1516

52. Henry VIII (1491-1547)  As the years went on, the situation grew dim for Henry  Catherine eventually got well past the childbearing age  She had no pregnancies after 1519  Affair with Anne Boleyn  Started in 1525  Anne had been one of Catherine’s Ladies-in-Waiting  Quest for an annulment  Henry first asked Catherine for an annulment but she refused  In 1527, he petitions Pope Clement VII for an annulment  Henry argued that God was punishing him for marrying his deceased brother’s wife

53. Henry VIII (1491-1547)  Clement had a serious issue if he granted the annulment:  He would be admitting the first papal dispensation was invalid  This would then question the validity of all other dispensations  Also, HRE Charles V became involved in this issue  He was Catherine’s nephew  He had recently invaded Rome and held the pope in captivity  Clement stalled the annulment  Henry asked his own chief clergymen to investigate an annulment  In 1531, declared himself to be “protestor and supreme head” of the church in England

54. Henry VIII (1491-1547)  In late 1532, Anne Boleyn became pregnant  This meant the annulment became more urgent  Henry secretly married Anne on January 25, 1533  He did not want the child, if it was a boy, to be a bastard  In May 1533, an English ecclesiastical court declared Henry’s marriage to Catherine was void  This decision could not be appealed by the papacy because of the Statute of Praemunire (1353)  The court also recognized Henry’s marriage to Anne  This was followed with the excommunication of Henry by Clement VII  Anne Boleyn was crowned on June 1, 1533

55.  Anne Boleyn  (1501-1536)

56. Official Break With the Church  Henry proceeded to have Parliament pass a series of laws cutting off all ties to Rome  Asserted that there was no authority in England greater than the king and Parliament  The pope no longer had any standing in England  Acts of Supremacy and Treason (1534)  The king “justly and rightfully is and ought to be the supreme head of the Church of England”  These created an independent national church which was now known as the Church of England (Anglicans Ecclesia), or the Anglican Church  These also made it punishable by death to deny that the king was the supreme head of the church

57. Official Break With the Church  Act Dissolving the Greater Monasteries (1539)  This act shut down all monasteries and convents in England  All their wealth was then given to the king  Only true “Protestant” move made by Henry  Six Articles of Faith (1539)  This were issued by Parliament to show a break with Rome and not specifically Catholicism  It included such ideas as transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, and the importance of oral confessions  These became the basic beliefs of the Anglican church but at the same time mirrored similar Catholic doctrines  Anglican church remained Catholic in organization, doctrine, ritual, and language

58.  Edward VI  (1547-1553)

59. Edward VI (1547-1553)  Edward VI (1547-1553)  Was nine years old when he was crowned king in 1547  Many members of his regency were radical Protestants  They used their position of power to revise church  Edward himself was a devout Protestant  Changes to the church included:  Priests were permitted to marry  English was substituted for Latin  The veneration of holy images was abolished  Denounced all sacraments except baptism and communion  Justification by faith alone  Denied transubstantiation and accepted consubstantiation

60.  Mary I  (1553-1558)

61. Mary I (1553-1558)  Mary was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon  She was raised as a Roman Catholic  She was 37 years old when she was crowned on July 19, 1553  She vowed to bring Catholicism back to England  She also wanted to realign the country back with the papacy  At the time, a majority of England was still Roman Catholic  Many resented the changes brought about by Edward  Act of Repeal (October 1553)  It undid all the religious changes done during Edward’s reign

62. Mary I (1553-1558)  Revival of the Heresy Acts (November 1554)  She reinstituted medieval heresy laws and began her prosecution of Protestants  Over 280 Protestants were burned at the stake for heresy  Over 800 Protestants fled England at this time  Other changes she made:  Repealed many of the religious changes made by Henry  Restored the celebration of mass in Latin and clerical celibacy  Forced Parliament to vote for the unconditional return of England to papal allegiance  She died on November 17, 1558  She made no concessions for a Catholic ruler to follow her

63.  Elizabeth I  (1558-1603)

64. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)  Elizabeth was the daughter of Anne Boleyn  She was raised Protestant but was not devout  Her main goal was to bring religious peace to England  She wanted to bring a compromise between Catholics and Protestants by “going down the middle”  Act of Supremacy of 1559  This repealed all of Mary’s legislation  Foreign princes were not allowed to exercise any power in England  Elizabeth was declared the spiritual and religious head of the church

65. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)  The Act also included an Oath of Supremacy  Every person holding civil or church office must make an oath stating the Queen was the head of the church or else they would be charged with treason  Act of Uniformity of 1559  Reestablished some of the prayers and doctrines of Edward’s reign  She made the 1552 Book of Common Prayer compulsory  She required all English to attend the Anglican church on Sundays  If they did not, they were charged a fine of 12 pence called a recusancy fine

66. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)  39 Articles of Faith (1563)  The Anglican church now looked like a cross between Luther and the Catholic Church  Elizabeth was excommunicated by Pope Pius V in 1570  By this point in time, a majority of English had accepted the Protestant religion  The only ones who did not accept Elizabeth’s compromise were the Catholics and the radical Protestants (the Puritans)  With the Compromise, the English Reformation was officially over

67.  Council of Trent (1545–1563)

68. Counter Reformation  The Catholic Church could not ignore the problems it was facing both internally and externally  Calls for a two front assault  Wanted to fight the growing threat of Protestantism  Also wanted to renew the Church from the inside as well  To Catholics, this is called the “Catholic Reformation”  To non-Catholics is it referred to as the “Counter Reformation”  Broken down into three phases

69. First Phase of the Counter-Reformation  First phase began in the 1490s  Contained two major movements from within  There was a movement for moral and institutional reform within the religious orders  However, the Papacy showed little interest in making changes  Growing influence of northern humanists  Encouraged the laity to lead lives of simple but sincere religious piety  Also believed in ad fontes (“to the source”) to find a way to bring back the church to its original state  Included such great thinkers as Deiderus Erasmus  Here too, the calls were ignored by the papacy

70. Second Phase (1530s-1550s)  Second phase began during the 1530s  This was a period of more aggressive reform  New style of papal leadership  The popes began acting like spiritual leaders  Accomplished administrators were hired to run the Vatican  The papal finances were reorganized  Pope Paul III (1534-1549)  Organized the Council of Trent to deal with Protestantism  Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)  Very orthodox and demanded reform in the church

71. Third Phase(1545-1563)  The third phase was the Council of Trent (1545–1563)  Council reaffirmed many of the Catholic doctrines  All seven sacraments, not just two, were considered necessary  Stated that both good deeds and faith were needed for salvation  Reaffirmed transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, purgatory, and papal supremacy  Dealt with the major problems in the church  Called for an end to pluralism  Indulgences were to be earned, not sold  Abolished certain popular religious cults and replaced them with “approved” ones such as the Cult of the Virgin Mary  Established the Index of Forbidden Books (1564)

72.  Ignatius Loyola  (1491-1556)

73. Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)  The Society of Jesus  Was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540  It was a very militant society whose purpose was to fight heresy and bring back the “lost souls” to Catholicism  One of the major role players in the Counter Reformation  Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)  He had been a solider in the Spanish army when he got hit in the leg with a cannonball  His injury was very difficult to heal  It was at the time that he made the decision to be a solider of Christ

74. Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)  The Spiritual Exercises (1522-1524)  A series of mediations, prayers, and mental exercises  Practical advice on how to master the will  A program of meditations on sin and the life of Christ  In 1534, he formed the Society of Jesus  Did this along with six other friends  In 1540, they received papal approval for the Society to be an official order of the church  In 1548, Pope Paul III formally approved the Exercises

75. Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)  The Society played many roles  They were able to regain territory lost to the Protestant movement using rhetoric and persuasion rather than force  They developed some of the best schools in the world  They became confessors to the nobility  Due to their education and training, they were in demand to hold government positions  Acted as missionaries to help convert new areas to Catholicism  By the time of Loyola’s death, there were over 1,000 members of the Society  Over the next century, the Society spread to Asia (India and China) and South American

77. Impacts of the Reformation  Consequences of the Reformation on Europe  It increased power of Europe’s sovereign states by taking away the power of the Catholic Church  It broke the religious monopoly the Catholic Church had in Europe  It also caused major divisions to take place in Europe which will lead to a century of religious warfare