1. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Chapter 14 Anthropometry and Body Composition

2. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-2 Chapter Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to 1. Define the terms anthropometry, somatotype, body composition, overfat, obese, and lean body weight. 2. State why body structure and composition should be measured. 3. Describe responsibilities after the measurement of body structure and composition. 4. Describe the major characteristics of Sheldon’s classification of body types. 5. Correctly interpret height-weight tables. 6. Classify body frames.

3. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-3 Chapter Objectives 7. State the problems associated with the use of height-weight tables to determine desirable weight. 8. Describe eight acceptable sites for skinfold measurements. 9. Perform skinfold measurements, estimate percent body fat, and advise individuals of optimal percent fat ranges. 10. Calculate an individual’s desirable body weight based upon an acceptable percent body fat.

4. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-4 Chapter Objectives 11. Determine body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio and advise individuals of BMI values and waist-to-hip ratios associated with the lowest risk of health problems. 12. Contrast the use of skinfold measurements, BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio (i.e. the appropriate use of each).

5. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-5 Anthropometry - the measurement of the structure and proportions of the body; may include measurement of height and weight, measurement of circumferences, diameters, and lengths of body segments, and somatotyping (body typing) Body composition - refers to the component parts of the body; for measurement purposes body composition is interpreted as referring to body fat weight and lean body weight Anthropometry, Body Composition, and Lean Body Weight

6. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-6 Lean body weight - found by subtracting the weight of the body fat from the total body weight; often interpreted as fat-free weight Fat-free weight includes a small amount of essential lipid, such as the nerve sheaths, the brain, and the cell membranes. Depending on body size, about 1.5 to 3% of the weight of the lean body is essential lipids; 40 to 50% is composed of muscle weight or mass. Organs and tissues, such as skin and bones, make up the remaining portion. Anthropometry, Body Composition, and Lean Body Weight

7. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-7 Anthropometry, Body Composition, and Lean Body Weight Overfat indicated when individuals have a higher percent body fat than is desirable. A body mass index (BMI) between 25-29 is considered overfat. Individuals considered obese if body fat percent increases risk of mortality and morbidity. BMI of 30 and higher is considered obese.

8. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-8 Why Measure Body Structure and Composition? Values found in most weight tables are grouped into height and body type categories. Use of height-weight tables not ideal; no estimation of percent body fat can be made. If used, should realistically determine body type. Body type classification may be useful when planning obtainable fitness goals (e.g., endomorphic body type and running goals).

9. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-9 Why Measure Body Structure and Composition? Height and weight and measurements may be recorded for diagnostic purposes. Recording during growing years may serve to prevent the occurrence of long-term health problems. Height and weight measurements also may be used for homogeneous grouping of youth for sports participation.

10. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-10 Why Measure Body Structure and Composition? Measurement of body composition is important for everyone who promotes good health. Estimated that 36% of Americans twenty years and older are obese. More than 63% of this age group are either overfat or obese. Among children and teens, ages 2-19, almost 17% are obese and 33% are either overfat or obese.

11. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-11 Why Measure Body Structure and Composition? Strong correlation between obesity and increased of chronic diseases such as: coronary artery disease diabetes hypertension hyperlipidemia certain cancers

12. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-12 Why Measure Body Structure and Composition? Millions of Americans on weight-loss diets; fail to under- stand difference between the loss of body fat and lean body weight, and the role of exercise in weight management. Weight alone should not be used to determine success of diet. Professionals in health-related fields need to assume leadership role in counseling individuals about correct way to manage weight; help them understand and to accept healthy percent body fat; have realistic body images.

13. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-13 Responsibilities after Measurement Work with individuals who need to reduce body fat With children, need support of parents May need assistance of nutritionist Seek modest decrease in caloric intake Combine exercise and diet changes

14. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-14 Responsibilities after Measurement With exercise and diet changes combined, 80% to 95% of weight loss is fat tissue With diet changes alone, 30% to 45% of weight loss is lean tissue Gradual weight reduction; 1 to 2 pounds/week Monitor percent body fat during weight loss; seek 1% to 2% loss of percent body fat every 6 to 8 weeks

15. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-15 Body Type Classification (Somatotyping) Sheldon’s classification Ectomorph - arms and legs are slender, neck appears long, and muscle tissue has little definition Mesomorph - athletic-looking individual; broad shoulder, narrow hips, and predominant tissue Endomorph - thick individual; arms and legs are short compared with the torso, chest and waist are about same size, neck is thick

16. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-16 Body Type Classification (Somatotyping) Numbers use to designate the components of each of the three types; 7 the highest and 1 the lowest rating. First number = endomorphic characteristics Second number = mesomorphic characteristics Third number = ectomorphic characteristics 7-1-1 = pure endomorph 1-7-1 = pure mesomorph 1-1-7 = pure ectomorph Extremes rare; usually at least two components of each type are present in an individual.

17. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-17 Body Type Classification (Somatotyping) By knowing major characteristics of each body type, possible to estimate the two dominant body types of each individual and put to practical use. Relationship exists between somatotypes and certain sports. Training may result in improved performance, but it will not result in a change of body type.

18. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-18 Height-Weight Tables Metropolitan Life Insurance Company height- weight tables 1959 tables (see table 14.1) 1983 tables - average weight range increases of 13 pounds for short men and 10 pounds for short women, little increases for medium-height men and women, and insignificant increases for tall men and women (see table 14.2) AHA encouraged Americans to continue to use 1959 tables; cigarette smokers

19. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-19 Height-Weight Tables 1990 - Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans (U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services) - permitted too much weight gain in aging process Major problem: height-weight tables reveal nothing about body composition. With this limitation, tables have value as screening device. Major drawback: some individuals do not correctly determine their frame size

20. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-20 Determination of Body Frame Elbow Breadth 1. Extend right arm and bend the forearm upward at a 90 0 angle. 2. Place the thumb and index finger of the left hand on the two prominent bones on either side of the right elbow. 3. Measure the space between the thumb and index finger of the left hand with a ruler or tape measure. 4. Record the measurement and compare with standards in table 14.3.

21. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-21 Males Females Height (in.) Elbow B. (in.)** 61 to 62 2 1/2 to 2 7/8 57 to 58 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 63 to 66 2 5/8 to 2 7/8 59 to 62 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 67 to 70 2 3/4 to 3 63 to 66 2 3/8 to 2 5/8 71 to 74 2 3/4 to 3 1/8 67 to 70 2 3/8 to 2 5/8 75+ 2 7/8 to 3 1/4 71+ 2 1/2 to 2 3/4 *Height without shoes **Measurement lower than those listed indicate a small frame and higher measurements indicate a larger frame. Table 14.3 Standards for Estimating Medium Frame Using Elbow Breadth and Height

22. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-22 Ankle Girth 1. Pulling the tape as snug as possible, measure the girth of right ankle at the smallest point, just above the boney prominences. 2. Record the measure and compare with the standards in table 14.4. TABLE 14.4 Standards for Estimating Body Frame Size from Ankle Girth (inches) Gender Small Medium Large Male Less than 8 8 to 9.25 More than 9.25 Female Less than 7.5 7.5 to 8.75 More than 8.75 Determination of Body Frame

23. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-23 Body Composition Several methods are available for measurement of body composition. Bioeletrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) Air Displacement Plethysmography (BOD POD) Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA) Underwater Weighing Skinfold Tests

24. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-24 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) Tiny electrical current sent through body. Based on difference between the resistance of lean tissue to an electrical current and the resistance of fat tissue. Lean tissue contains mostly water (70% or more); less resistance. Early versions required electrodes be attached to wrist and ankle sites.

25. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-25 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) Variety of BIA devices sold for commercial and home use; stand barefooted on a bathroom scale like instrument or hold handgrips while extending the arms. Standard error of measurement about 3.5%. If used after a meal probably will underestimate percent of body fat; if used after dehydration probably will overestimate.

26. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-26 Air Displacement Plethysmography (BOD POD) Base on same principle as underwater weighing, but uses air instead of water. Determines body volume by comparing initial volume of empty chamber and the volume with person inside. After weight is determined, individual sits in chamber for 3 to 5 minutes.

27. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-27 Air Displacement Plethysmography (BOD POD) Some individuals prefer BOD POD to underwater weighting because they fear immersion. Expensive; some research found standard error of less than 2%. See figure 14.1.

28. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-28 Duel-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA) Provides estimate of bone mineral, fat, and lean soft-tissue mass. Individual lies supine on table while detector probes pass slowly across body. Two distinct low-energy x-ray beams penetrate bone and soft tissue areas.

29. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-29 Duel-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA) Takes approximately 12 minutes. Computer software produces an image and estimates of bone mineral content, fat tissue, and lean soft-tissue. Expensive; degree of agreement with underwater weighting.

30. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-30 Underwater Weighing Popular laboratory method for estimating percent body fat Standard error of estimate ±0.8 to ±1.2% Considered very valid method Also called hydrostatic weighing

31. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-31 See figure 14.2. Objective: to determine body volume, which is then used to determine body density. Based on the Archimedean principle of water displacement and the determination of body density; the weight a body losses underwater equals the weight of the water it displaces. Weight of water displaced = weight of body in air – weight of body under water. Underwater Weighing

32. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-32 Underwater Weighing Weight of water displaced divided by density of water equals the volume of the water. The volume of the water equals the volume of the body submerged (for individuals, referred to as body volume). The density of the water, determined with the appropriate formula, is a function of its temperature.

33. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-33 Underwater Weighing Before determining body density, residual lung volume must be determined. With body volume, water density, and residual lung volume determined, body density can be determined (mathematical equation). After body density is calculated, another equation is used to estimated the percentage of body fat.

34. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-34 Underwater Weighing Lean tissue has greater density than fat tissue. The higher the body density of an individual, the lower the percentage of body fat. Costly; some individuals fear total immersion and not acceptable method for individuals with certain medical conditions.

35. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-35 Measurement of subcutaneous body fat with skinfold calipers; involves pinching a fold away from the underlying muscle and applying the caliper to the fold. All measurements are taken on the right side of the body. Should not be taken immediately after exercise because the shift of body fluid to the skin will increase the skinfold size. Skinfold Tests

36. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-36 Directions for skinfold testing: 1.Grasp the skinfold firmly between the thumb and index finger about one-half inch from the site at which the caliper is to be applied. Do not include muscle or fascia in the fold. 2. While continuing to hold the fold, apply the caliper to the fold above or below the finger and slowly release the caliper grip for that full tension is exerted on the fold. Measurement is read to the nearest 0.5 millimeter about 1 to 2 seconds (no longer) after the grip is released. Skinfold Tests

37. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-37 Skinfold Tests 3. Take a minimum of two measurements at each site; if they vary by more than 1 millimeter, take a third measurement. Specific test instructions sometimes differ in this step. For example, one test may use the median score of three measurements, while another test may require that two consecutive measurements agree within 0.5 millimeters. Take measurements in rotational order (circuits).

38. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-38 May be marked with a grease pencil. See figures 14.3-14.10. 1. Chest: a diagonal fold half of the distance between the anterior axillary line and nipple for males; one third of the distance from the anterior axillary line to the nipple for females. 2. Axilla: a vertical fold on the midaxillary line at the level of the xiphoid process of the sternum. Skinfold Measurement Sites

39. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-39 Skinfold Measurement Sites 3. Triceps: a vertical fold over the triceps muscle, halfway between the acromion and olecranon processes (arm should be extended and relaxed). 4. Subscapula: a diagonal fold just inferior to and in line with inferior angle of the scapula.

40. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-40 5. Abdominal: a vertical fold approximately one- half to one inch to the right of the naval. 6. Suprailium: a slightly diagonal fold on the crest of the ilium on the anterior axillary line. Skinfold Measurement Sites

41. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-41 Skinfold Measurement Sites 7. Thigh: a vertical fold on the anterior thigh midway between the hip and knee joints (weight should be on left foot.) 8. Calf: a vertical fold on the inside of the calf; right foot is placed flat on bench with knee flexed to 90 0 ; vertical fold of skin is grasped just above the largest part of calf girth and fold of skin is measured at the largest part of the girth.

42. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-42 Skinfold Tests Have a standard error of 3. 5 to 4.0% Rarely performed outside of laboratory setting: 1.Expense of calipers 2.Lack of confidence in reliability of measurements Note: Always be aware of the standard error of estimate for the measurement technique you use.

43. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-43 Reliability of skinfold measurements increased when testers are trained. Major requirement for a skinfold caliper is that it exert a constant force of 10 gm/mm 2 at the skinfold site. Testers must be willing to practice. Skinfold Measurement

44. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-44 Estimating Percent Body Fat Many regression equations available for predicting hydrostatically measured body density from skinfold measurements. Population specific equation - developed from homogeneous samples; their application is limited to a similar sample (e.g., age and gender).

45. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-45 Estimating Percent Body Fat Generalized equation - can be used with samples varying in age and body fatness; developed based on large heterogeneous samples using regression models that account for age and the nonlinear relationship between skinfold fat and body density.

46. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-46 Estimating Percent Body Fat Microcomputer programs available to determine body density and percent fat after skinfold measurements have been completed. Also, computer-generated tables that provide percent body fat estimates have been developed.

47. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-47 Estimating Percent Body Fat See tables 14.5 through 14.8 Pollack found that two different sums of three skinfolds for males and females highly correlated with the sum of seven of the skinfolds previously described.

48. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-48 Estimating Percent Body Fat Male Skinfold Sites Female Skinfold Sites 1 1 chest triceps abdomen suprailium thigh thigh 2 2 triceps chest abdomen subscapular suprailium

49. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-49 Optimal Percent Body Fat and Desirable Body Weight Though skinfolds are related to body fatness in children, the absolute amount of body fat cannot be accurately determined. The relation of skinfold fat to body fatness differs by gender and also changes as children mature. A given skinfold thickness does not correspond to the same body fat content for seven-year-olds as it does for seventeen-year-olds.

50. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-50 What is desirable percent fat for children and adults? Risks associated with too much fat and too little fat. Different optimal limits of percent body fat have been reported. Difficult to compare standards because studies do not always group age ranges in the same way. Optimal Percent Body Fat and Desirable Body Weight

51. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-51 FITTNESSGRAM Optimal range of body fatness for males and females, ages 5 to 25, = 10 to 20% and 15 to 25%, respectively. For children above age of 12, males with less than 8% and females with less than 13% fat are considered very lean. YMCA Fitness Test “Good” standard for percent fat for males, ages 26 to 35, are 11 to 13% for males and 18 to 20% for females. Optimal Percent Body Fat and Desirable Body Weight

52. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-52 Optimal Percent Body Fat and Desirable Body Weight Ross and Jackson (1990) For the age group 30 to 39, the optimal range for percent fat is 12 to 22% for males and 16 to 26% for females. Lohman (1982) Satisfactory fat content for men is 10 to 22% and for women 20 to 32%.

53. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-53 Average percent body fat for highly trained male endurance athletes is 4 to 10%; for highly trained female endurance athletes, it is 13 to 18%. Recommended minimal percent fat for male athletes is 3 to 7%; for females athletes, it is 10 to 18%. When testing for body fatness, use standards provided with test. If you do not use a standardized test, table 14.9 provides optimal percent body fat standards for various adult ages. Optimal Percent Body Fat and Desirable Body Weight

54. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-54 Given: Body Weight = 200 pounds; % fat = 24% Calculation of fat weight (FW) FW = body weight x (% fat  100) = 200 x (24%  100) = 200 x.24 FW = 48 pounds Sample Calculation of Desired Weight

55. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-55 Sample Calculation of Desirable Weight Calculation of lean body weight (LBW) LBW = body weight - FW = 200 - 48 LBW = 152 pounds Calculation of desirable body weight (DBW) DBW = LBW = 152 1.00 - (desired % fat  100) 1.00 - (19%  100) DBW = 152 = 152 = 187.7 pounds 1.00 - (.19).81

56. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-56 As measurement errors may occur, when estimating body density it is best to determine desirable body weight ranges and percent body fat. Males = 15 to 18% fat Females = 22 to 26% fat Values above these percentages indicate overfatness. Obese Males = excess of 25% fat Females = excess of 30% fat Sample Calculation of Desirable Weight

57. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-57 Ideal Weight for Average Build Men: (4 x height in inches) - 128 = weight with roughly 15 to 19% body fat Female: (3.5 x height in inches - 108 = weight with roughly 18 to 22% body fat Large-bone individuals should add 10% to the calculated figure; small-boned individuals should subtract 10%. Cooper Method for Determining Ideal Weight

58. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-58 Body Mass Index (BMI) Provides an indication of relationship of weight to height. Used world-wide in health studies. Standard error large for children and elderly because their muscle and bone weights in relationship to their heights can change rapidly.

59. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-59 Body Mass Index (BMI) Has been found to correlate with health risks and can be used as a screening tool. BMI = weight in kilograms (height in meters) 2 May also use: BMI = 704(weight in pounds) (height in inches) 2

60. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-60 In general, for adults BMI of 20 to 25 is associated with the lowest risk of health problems. Adults with a BMI greater than 30 are considered obese; anyone with a BMI greater than 40 is considered morbidly obese and in need of medical attention. Table 14.10 indicates classification of overweight and disease risk associated with BMI for adults. Body Mass Index (BMI)

61. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-61 Body Mass Index (BMI) For children and adolescents (aged 2-19), BMI plotted on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention chart. Children and adolescents with BMI at the 85 th percentile but less than 95 th percentile (same age and sex) are considered overweight. Obesity is defined as a BMI at or above 95 th percentile.

62. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-62 Body shape as well as percent body fat is important to health. Excess body fat concentrated in the abdominal area may be a greater health risk than fat found around the hips and thighs. Broken-down abdominal fat goes straight to the liver, which may lead to dangerous elevations in blood fat and insulin levels. Table 14.10 shows risks associated with waist circumference and BMI. Fat Distribution

63. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-63 Fat Distribution A favorable waist-to-hip ratio may decrease the risk of diseases associated with excess weight. To determine the waist-to-hip ratio: 1. Measure around the waist where it is the smallest; stand relaxed and do not pull in the stomach. 2. Measure the hips where they are the largest. 3. Divide the waist measurement by the hips measurement to obtain waist-to-hip ratio.

64. ©2013, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved 14-64 Fat Distribution Should be aware that different procedures may be described for measurement of waist circumference. Table 14.11 includes waist-to-hip ratios that indicate moderate health risks.