GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES © Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2016.

GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES © Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2016

PRESENTATION OUTLINE Major Concepts, Central Question, Main Thesis, and Main Argument Major Concepts, Central Question, Main Thesis, and Main Argument Major Concepts Major Concepts Gender Risk Story Gender Risk Story Gender Gap Gender Gap –The Old Gender Gap: Gender role stigma, gender role norms, men own and run the world –The New Gender Gap: End of Men Sociological Standpoint on the Gender Risk and Gap Sociological Standpoint on the Gender Risk and Gap Application of Sociological Paradigms Application of Sociological Paradigms Intersectionality Intersectionality Conclusion: Any hope for eliminating the Gender Gap? Conclusion: Any hope for eliminating the Gender Gap? Appendix: Essay-type sample final exam questions Appendix: Essay-type sample final exam questions

Central Question & Main Thesis QUESTION: QUESTION: To what extent does gender matter in the 21 st century global world? To what extent does gender matter in the 21 st century global world? THESIS: THESIS: To a large extent gender matters in the 21 st century because “gender continues to operate as one of the master statuses” (Symbaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 145) and gender gap still exists and the “gender risk” is still very high and gender return is still very low for girls and women ( To a large extent gender matters in the 21 st century because “gender continues to operate as one of the master statuses” (Symbaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 145) and gender gap still exists and the “gender risk” is still very high and gender return is still very low for girls and women (Hannah-Moffat and O’Malley 2007). It is necessary to reduce gender risk and increase gender return for girls and women.

The Main Argument Although society has undergone significant changes over the past several decades, gender continues to operate as one of the master statuses by which others identify us and we identify ourselves. The elite [hegemonic] discourses of gender and their connections with the elite [hegemonic] discourses of sex and sexuality influence individual thoughts and feelings, the nature of social interactions, and the structure and functioning of society’s institutions in terms of gender differentiation, gender stratification, gender oppression, and gender relations that create gender gap that makes gender risk very high and gender return very low for girls and women (Symbaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 145). Although society has undergone significant changes over the past several decades, gender continues to operate as one of the master statuses by which others identify us and we identify ourselves. The elite [hegemonic] discourses of gender and their connections with the elite [hegemonic] discourses of sex and sexuality influence individual thoughts and feelings, the nature of social interactions, and the structure and functioning of society’s institutions in terms of gender differentiation, gender stratification, gender oppression, and gender relations that create gender gap that makes gender risk very high and gender return very low for girls and women (Symbaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 145). Specifically, because of the social construction of sex and sexuality into gender duality in patriarchal societies, been born a particular sex type results in different and unequal educational experiences, different and unequal occupational experiences, different and unequal economic experiences, and different and unequal family experiences (Ibid. p. 153). Specifically, because of the social construction of sex and sexuality into gender duality in patriarchal societies, been born a particular sex type results in different and unequal educational experiences, different and unequal occupational experiences, different and unequal economic experiences, and different and unequal family experiences (Ibid. p. 153). The social structure needs to be socially reconstructed to create opportunities that will improve girls and women’s lives by reducing gender risk and increasing gender return for them. This will work only when girls and women actively participate in designing and implementing the reconstruction processes. The social structure needs to be socially reconstructed to create opportunities that will improve girls and women’s lives by reducing gender risk and increasing gender return for them. This will work only when girls and women actively participate in designing and implementing the reconstruction processes. http://www.nexusnewspaper.com/2016/02/03/new-camosun- club-helps-women-in-engineering-gain-confidence/ http://www.nexusnewspaper.com/2016/02/03/new-camosun- club-helps-women-in-engineering-gain-confidence/ http://www.nexusnewspaper.com/2016/02/03/new-camosun- club-helps-women-in-engineering-gain-confidence/ http://www.nexusnewspaper.com/2016/02/03/new-camosun- club-helps-women-in-engineering-gain-confidence/

The Main Argument GENDER DUALITY GENDER DUALITY The elite [hegemonic] discourse is a sociobiological discourse that produces and reproduces “the belief that sex type can (and should) be equated with gender, and then with sexuality” [creates gender dualism that creates high gender risk and low gender return for women] (Symbaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 146). A totally new discourse constructed with a “gender lens” is needed to transform this structural condition (http://ssir.org/articles/entry/t he_rise_of_gender_capitalism.) The elite [hegemonic] discourse is a sociobiological discourse that produces and reproduces “the belief that sex type can (and should) be equated with gender, and then with sexuality” [creates gender dualism that creates high gender risk and low gender return for women] (Symbaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 146). A totally new discourse constructed with a “gender lens” is needed to transform this structural condition (http://ssir.org/articles/entry/t he_rise_of_gender_capitalism.)http://ssir.org/articles/entry/t he_rise_of_gender_capitalismhttp://ssir.org/articles/entry/t he_rise_of_gender_capitalism GENDER DUALITY

MAJOR CONCEPTS Sex Type and Sexuality Sex Type and Sexuality Gender Difference Gender Difference Gender Risk Gender Risk Gender Gap Gender Gap Gender-role stigma Gender-role stigma Gender Norms Gender Norms Gender inequity/Inequality Gender inequity/Inequality Gender socialization Gender socialization Gender Dualism Gender Dualism Elite Hegemonic Discourses on Gender Elite Hegemonic Discourses on Gender –Hegemonic Masculinity –Emphasized Femininity –Gendered Bodies Gender Differentiation Gender Differentiation Gender Stratification Gender Stratification Gender Oppression Gender Oppression Gender Relations Gender Relations Intersectionality Intersectionality Patriarchy Patriarchy Gender Identity Gender Identity

GENDER: WHAT IS IT? "Gender is a social, not a biological, construction: that is, it is the result of social definition rather than the fact that females have two X chromosomes while males have an X and Y chromosome" (O'Kelly, C.G.; L. S. Carney, 1986. p.3). It is the cultural roles and social inequality society assigns the biological categories or sex-types of male and female.

GENDER RISK Gender risk is the particular constellation of dangers associated with being a woman or a man (Hannah-Moffat and O’Malley 2007, cited in Robert Brym 2015, p. 108)

GENDER RISK https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a aN93lwgkUE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a aN93lwgkUE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a aN93lwgkUE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a aN93lwgkUE

THE GENDER RISK STORY The THE GENDER RISK STORY The young women at l'École Polytechnique de Montréal, Canada. Dec. 6 marks the anniversary of the murders in 1989 of 14 young women at l'École Polytechnique de Montréal. They died because they were women. As well as commemorating the 14 young women whose lives ended in an act of gender-based violence that shocked the nation, December 6 represents an opportunity for Canadians to reflect on the phenomenon of violence against women in our society. It is also an opportunity to consider the women and girls for whom violence is a daily reality, and to remember those who have died as a result of gender-based violence. ([Ccfa] National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence against Women in Canada, Dec. 6, 2015)

GENDER RISK Source: Image Camosun Faculty Association used in 2015 To remember the 1989 massacre of 14 women students In a classroom at Ecole Politechnique in Montreal http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/03/montreal-massacre-canadas-feminists-remember

THE GENDER RISK STORY: FEMICIDE IN CANADA

Gender Risk

THE GENDER RISK STORY” United States of America http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A WpsOqh8q0M http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A WpsOqh8q0M http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A WpsOqh8q0M http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A WpsOqh8q0M “If I were a boy”— Beyonce Knowles

THE GENDER RISK STORY India: Jyoti’s Story: On the evening of 16 December 2012, Jyoti Singh Pandey, a 23-year old physiotherapist student, went out with her boyfriend to see The Life of Pi in a suburb of Delhi, India. After the movie, the couple hopped on a minibus for the trip home. Six men were aboard, including the driver. They taunted the woman for going out in the evening. To them, she had failed to behave with appropriate modesty. The men beat the boyfriend unconscious with an iron rod and gagged and bound him. They then dragged Jyoti to the back of the bus, raping her repeatedly and penetrating her with the iron rod. They threw Jyoti and her boyfriend from the moving bus onto the road. The driver backed up, intent on killing her, but her boyfriend somehow managed to get her out of the way. Nonetheless, Jyoti died of her injuries on 29 December (Robert Brym 2015, p. 107)

THE GENDER RISK STORY (1) India (2) China FEMALE INFANTICIDE: The phenomenon of female infanticide is as old as many cultures, and has likely accounted for millions of gender-selective deaths throughout history. It remains a critical concern in a number of "Third World" countries today, notably the two most populous countries on earth, China and India. In all cases, specifically female infanticide reflects the low status accorded to women in most parts of the world; it is arguably the most brutal and destructive manifestation of the anti-female bias that pervades "patriarchal" societies. It is closely linked to the phenomena of sex-selective abortion, which targets female fetuses almost exclusively, and neglect of girl children (http://www.gendercide.org/case_infanticide.html)

THE GENDER RISK STORY: REHTAEH PARSONS, NOVA SCOTIA, CANADA Adding to Parson's humiliation, and a criminal act in its own right, was the posting of a photo of the assault to social media several days later by one of the alleged assailants. The photo played a crucial role in the later suicide because it provoked an endless string of taunts and threats against Parsons (http://www.socialistproject.ca/bullet/809.php#continue) http://www.socialistproject.ca/bullet/809.php#continue

THE GENDER RISK STORY: Camosun College Vigilant on Safety after Uvic Sexual Assault On September 26, [2015], a female student was sexually assaulted on the University of Victoria campus. In light of this, Camosun College has undertaken a review to uncover any and all reports of sexual assault either on campus or at college- sanctioned events. On September 26, [2015], a female student was sexually assaulted on the University of Victoria campus. In light of this, Camosun College has undertaken a review to uncover any and all reports of sexual assault either on campus or at college- sanctioned events. According to our campus security office records, Camosun College received no sexual assault reports during the 2014 calendar year, says Camosun director of student services and registrar, Nichole Greengoe. According to our campus security office records, Camosun College received no sexual assault reports during the 2014 calendar year, says Camosun director of student services and registrar, Nichole Greengoe. Greengoe says the risk of on-campus sexual assault is noticeably lower on a college campus such as Camosun due in part to lack of on-campus residences and significant late-night activities. She also lists infrequent and restricted service of alcohol on campus as another factor of decreased risk (Wendy Snedden, Contributing Writer, Nexus, November 18, 2015, p. 4) Greengoe says the risk of on-campus sexual assault is noticeably lower on a college campus such as Camosun due in part to lack of on-campus residences and significant late-night activities. She also lists infrequent and restricted service of alcohol on campus as another factor of decreased risk (Wendy Snedden, Contributing Writer, Nexus, November 18, 2015, p. 4)

THE GENDER RISK STORY Audrie Pott, California Audrie Pott, California Police in California recently arrested three young men in connection to the suicide of Audrie Pott in September 2012. She, too, suffered a gang sexual assault. Police in California recently arrested three young men in connection to the suicide of Audrie Pott in September 2012. She, too, suffered a gang sexual assault. (http://www.socialistproject.ca/bullet/8 09.php#continue) http://www.socialistproject.ca/bullet/8 09.php#continuehttp://www.socialistproject.ca/bullet/8 09.php#continue

THE GENDER RISK STORY It has only been five years since Pakistani schoolgirl Malala Yousafzai wrote an anonymous diary about life under Taliban rule in north-west Pakistan. anonymous diary Since then she has been shot in the head by the militants and become the youngest person ever to win the Nobel Peace Prize. win the Nobel Peace Prize. She first came to public attention through that heartfelt diary, published on BBC Urdu, which chronicled her desire to remain in education and for girls to have the chance to be educated. When she was shot in the head in October 2012 by a Taliban gunman, she was already well known in Pakistan, but that one shocking act catapulted her to international fame. She survived the dramatic assault, in which a militant boarded her school bus in Pakistan's north-western Swat valley and opened fire, wounding two of her school friends as well. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23241937 Malala Yousafzai, Pakistan

THE GENDER RISK STORY BANGLADESH: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B hodyt4fmU http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B hodyt4fmU http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B hodyt4fmU http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8B hodyt4fmU

THE GENDER RISK STORY KAKENYA NTAIYA: A Girl Who Demanded School: KAKENYA NTAIYA: A Girl Who Demanded School: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U fdbEPlL-II https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U fdbEPlL-II https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U fdbEPlL-II https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U fdbEPlL-II https://www.google.ca/#q=kakenya+ ntaiya+a+girl+who+demanded+schoo l https://www.google.ca/#q=kakenya+ ntaiya+a+girl+who+demanded+schoo l https://www.google.ca/#q=kakenya+ ntaiya+a+girl+who+demanded+schoo l https://www.google.ca/#q=kakenya+ ntaiya+a+girl+who+demanded+schoo l

THE GENDER RISK STORY GLOBAL GLOBAL GLOBAL https://www.ted.com/talks/sheryl_wu dunn_our_century_s_greatest_injustic e https://www.ted.com/talks/sheryl_wu dunn_our_century_s_greatest_injustic e https://www.ted.com/talks/sheryl_wu dunn_our_century_s_greatest_injustic e https://www.ted.com/talks/sheryl_wu dunn_our_century_s_greatest_injustic e

THE GENDER RISK STORY: POVERTY AND RELATIVE RISK BY GENDER

HIGH GENDER RISK FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN: Examples Physical insecurity Domestic violence Sexual violence and sexual harassment Kidnapping of girls and young women Slavery Genital cutting/mutilation Honor killing Femicide Poverty Strict body image expectation Restricted Dress Code

THE GENDER GAP: THE GENDER GAP: –1. The Old Gender Gap –2. The New gender Gap

The Gender Gap Both the Old Gender Gap and the New Gender Gap represent high gender risk and low gender return for girls and women. Both the Old Gender Gap and the New Gender Gap represent high gender risk and low gender return for girls and women. In other words, the new gender gap is just a variation of the old gender story— female gender risk is still higher and gender return still lower than male gender risk and return. In other words, the new gender gap is just a variation of the old gender story— female gender risk is still higher and gender return still lower than male gender risk and return.

OLD GENDER GAP: – –a) Gender Role Stigma – –b) Gender Norms – –C) Gender Inequity/Inequality

GENDER ROLE STIGMA Gender role stigma is about devaluing of the roles women play: – –It is driven by the patriarchal ideology of sexism and operated through the mechanisms of gender-specific “discrimination, expectancy confirmation, and automatic stereotype activation” against the roles women play in patriarchal societies (Brenda Major and Laurie T. O'Brien 2005). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NswJ4k O9uHc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NswJ4k O9uHc

GENDER ROLE STIGMA: SEX TYPE: Gendered Sexes SEX AS BIOLOGICAL CATEGORIES: –P–P–P–Primary Sex Characteristics (Genitalia differences) and Secondary sex characteristics related to hormonal differences) Intersexed/Hermaphrodites: combination of female and male internal and/or external genitalia or ambiguous external sex organs or the chromosomal variation XXY, etc. Western culture tends to be intolerant and even hateful of such sex-types Sexual Orientation: Heterosexuality; Homosexuality, Intersexual and Bisexuality; Transgendered Individuals (Transsexuals & Transvestites) –T–T–T–Transsexuals: people who feel they are one sex when biologically they are the other; they feel trapped in the wrong body Sexism: the belief that one sex category is innately superior to the other(s) PLASTIC SURGERY used to fix these “pathologies”. MALEFEMALE HERMAPHRODITE TRANS-SEXUAL OTHER PATHOLOGICAL Sexists and/or Beneficiaries Of sexism Targets of sexism

GENDER ROLE STIGMA: SEX TYPE: Genderized Sexes Usually sex types/differences are translated into gender differences and transformed into interrelated: Usually sex types/differences are translated into gender differences and transformed into interrelated: –Unequal gender statuses and roles –Unequal gender oppression –Unequal gender relations

GENDER ROLE STIGMA: SEX TYPE: Genderized Sexes “The evidence increasingly shows that gender differences tend to override sex differences—that social expectations, for example, are much more powerful determinants of people’s behaviors than their physical attributes” (McIntyre 2006: 241). “The evidence increasingly shows that gender differences tend to override sex differences—that social expectations, for example, are much more powerful determinants of people’s behaviors than their physical attributes” (McIntyre 2006: 241).

GENDER ROLE STIGMA: Is it a boy or is it a girl THE PINK WORLD vs. THE BLUE WORLD THE PINK WORLD vs. THE BLUE WORLD Socially Constructed DUALISM (Sympaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 147)

GENDER ROLE STIGMA BLUE=HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY & PINK=EMPHASIZED FEMININITY Male babies get blue blankets, while female babies get pink ones. Boys are expected to play with trucks, blocks, and toy soldiers; girls are given dolls and kitchen goods. Boys must be masculine— active, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant— whereas girls must be feminine—soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. These traditional gender- role patterns have been influential in the socialization of children in North America (Schaefer and Haaland 2009, p. 264). Male babies get blue blankets, while female babies get pink ones. Boys are expected to play with trucks, blocks, and toy soldiers; girls are given dolls and kitchen goods. Boys must be masculine— active, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant— whereas girls must be feminine—soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. These traditional gender- role patterns have been influential in the socialization of children in North America (Schaefer and Haaland 2009, p. 264). Socially Constructed DUALISM (Sympaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 147) Socially Constructed DUALISM (Sympaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 147)

GENDER ROLE STIGMA BLUE=PATERNAL & PINK=MATERNAL MATERNAL PATERNAL EMPHASIZED FEMININIITY HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY PARENTING SEXUALITY Mild, Responsive, Responsible, Nurturing, Supportive, Attractive, Enthusiastic Violent, Aggressive, Impersonal, Less Responsible, Driven, Ambitious, Capable, Successful, Powerful Female/Woman Male/Man Socially Constructed DUALISM (Sympaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 147)

GENDER ROLE STIGMA BLUE=PATERNAL & PINK=MATERNAL In the past 35 years, inspired in good part by the feminist movement, some changes are occurring in the traditional gender role pattern. Nevertheless, the traditional male and female gender roles remain well entrenched as an influential element of our culture (Messner 1997, cited in Schaefer and Haaland 2009, p. 266) In the past 35 years, inspired in good part by the feminist movement, some changes are occurring in the traditional gender role pattern. Nevertheless, the traditional male and female gender roles remain well entrenched as an influential element of our culture (Messner 1997, cited in Schaefer and Haaland 2009, p. 266)

GENDER ROLE STIGMA BLUE=PATERNAL & PINK=MATERNAL Socially Constructed DUALISM (Sympaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 147) Socially Constructed DUALISM (Sympaluk & Bereska 2016, p. 147) “It is more accurate to think of the sexes not in terms of dualism, but rather as a spectrum, similar to the colour spectrum…the dualism female/male is an oversimplification” “It is more accurate to think of the sexes not in terms of dualism, but rather as a spectrum, similar to the colour spectrum…the dualism female/male is an oversimplification”

GENDER ROLE STIGMA: BEYOND BLUE=PATERNAL & PINK=MATERNAL CROSS-CULTURAL EVIDENCE: CROSS-CULTURAL EVIDENCE: Did you know that there is standardized male personality and standardized female personality in each culture. But the differences in the standards across cultures are amazing? (Margaret Mead 1935: 205). Did you know that there is standardized male personality and standardized female personality in each culture. But the differences in the standards across cultures are amazing? (Margaret Mead 1935: 205). 1. Arapesh (Papua New Guinea): Mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive man and mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive woman. 1. Arapesh (Papua New Guinea): Mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive man and mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive woman. 2. Mundugumor (Pappua New Guinea): Competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive man and competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive woman 2. Mundugumor (Pappua New Guinea): Competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive man and competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive woman 3. Tchambuli (Papua New Guinea): Dominant, impersonal, assertive, managing woman and less responsible, emotionally dependent man dressed up in frilly clothes, wearing makeup, and even giggle a lot. 3. Tchambuli (Papua New Guinea): Dominant, impersonal, assertive, managing woman and less responsible, emotionally dependent man dressed up in frilly clothes, wearing makeup, and even giggle a lot.

OLD GENDER GAP: OLD GENDER GAP: b) GENDER NORMS b) GENDER NORMS

GENDER NORMS Different rules for female and male behaviors in Canada? Different rules for female and male behaviors in Canada?

GENDER NORMS: A QUIZ FOR MEN: Masculinization of Men 1. How many of the men in this class 1. How many of the men in this class a) wear fingernail polish? a) wear fingernail polish? b) throw tupperware party? b) throw tupperware party? c) have pedicure? c) have pedicure? d) shave their leg/arm hair? d) shave their leg/arm hair?

GENDER NORMS: QUIZ FOR WOMEN: Masculinization of Women 2. How many women in this class 2. How many women in this class a) send men flowers? a) send men flowers? b) open car doors for men? b) open car doors for men? c) pay for dinner when on a date? c) pay for dinner when on a date? d) talk knowledgeably about cars? d) talk knowledgeably about cars?

GENDER NORMS: GENDER DIFFERENTIATION : NORM VIOLATIONS IN CANADA Norm Violation by Women Norm Violations by Men Send men flowersWear fingernail polish Spit in publicNeedlepoint in public Use men’s bathroomThrow Tupperware party Buy/use jock strapCry in public Buy/chew tobaccoHave pedicure Talk knowledgeably about cars Apply to babysit Open doors for menShave leg/arm hair Source: Nielsen 2000, p. 287

OLD GENDER GAP: c) GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY – –Men Own and Run the World

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: THE 2013 UN GENDER GAP REPORT The gender gap report for 2013 shows that globally the highest areas of inequality are economic and political. It’s vital to bring awareness to the fight that women still face for equal pay, land and business ownership, and political power (NEXUS, “Campaign aims for equality”, October 15, 2014, p. 15). The gender gap report for 2013 shows that globally the highest areas of inequality are economic and political. It’s vital to bring awareness to the fight that women still face for equal pay, land and business ownership, and political power (NEXUS, “Campaign aims for equality”, October 15, 2014, p. 15).

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own and Run the World Are there inequalities against and oppression of women in the 21 st century Canadian society in the following five vital areas of society? Are there inequalities against and oppression of women in the 21 st century Canadian society in the following five vital areas of society? ECONOMIC ECONOMIC –1. Employment –2. Income and Wealth POLITICAL POLITICAL –3. Female Presidents/Prime Ministers/Premiers –4. Women in Parliament HOUSEWORK HOUSEWORK –5. Household chores performed by males and females

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World Gender inequality at Work Gender inequality at Work Women still positioned primarily in lower-paying, traditionally female occupations: "pink-collar" positions in health and human services, sales, teaching, humanities and social sciences Women still positioned primarily in lower-paying, traditionally female occupations: "pink-collar" positions in health and human services, sales, teaching, humanities and social sciences Men dominate in all other job categories (See statistics on next two slide s) Men dominate in all other job categories (See statistics on next two slide s)

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World Women entering the job market find their options restricted in important ways. Particularly damaging is occupational segregation, or confinement to sex-typed “women’s jobs”...Entering such sex-typed occupations places women in “service” roles that parallel the traditional gender-role expectations [constructed in 19 th century Europe] of housewives “serving” their husbands and children (ibid.: p. 274). Women entering the job market find their options restricted in important ways. Particularly damaging is occupational segregation, or confinement to sex-typed “women’s jobs”...Entering such sex-typed occupations places women in “service” roles that parallel the traditional gender-role expectations [constructed in 19 th century Europe] of housewives “serving” their husbands and children (ibid.: p. 274).

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World (Statistics Canada data 2006) Underrepresented Trades, transportation, and construction6.9% Natural and applied sciences21.8% Senior management23.8% Overrepresented Nursing, therapy, other health-related86.5% Clerical and administrative69.1% Cashiers Retail sales Roughly equal representation Business and finance Professional health occupations Tour and travel occupations 85.2% 58.6% 49.7% 53.5% 51.4%

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World (SILICON VALLEY) Women in Silicon Valley do not live in such a shiny detached bubble that they don’t recognize sexism. You would have to be blind to walk through the offices of Facebook or Google everyday and not notice the sea of mostly male programmers, or the “frat house”, as Sheryl Sandberg, CEO of Facebook, calls it…It’s an omnipresent and unpleasant fact of life, but it shouldn’t keep you from going about your business…Dwelling on sexism is “complete waste of time”, Lori Goler, Facebook’s human resources director, said in a New Yorker profile of Sandberg. “If I spent one hour talking about how I’m excluded, that is an hour I am not spending solving Facebook problem’s (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 197). Women in Silicon Valley do not live in such a shiny detached bubble that they don’t recognize sexism. You would have to be blind to walk through the offices of Facebook or Google everyday and not notice the sea of mostly male programmers, or the “frat house”, as Sheryl Sandberg, CEO of Facebook, calls it…It’s an omnipresent and unpleasant fact of life, but it shouldn’t keep you from going about your business…Dwelling on sexism is “complete waste of time”, Lori Goler, Facebook’s human resources director, said in a New Yorker profile of Sandberg. “If I spent one hour talking about how I’m excluded, that is an hour I am not spending solving Facebook problem’s (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 197).

Percentage Women Judges22.9 Physicians25.6 Dentists17.9 Senior Managers 10.9 Lawyers27.2 Investment Dealers 33.6 Petroleum Engineers 6.5 Chiropractors15.6 Engineering. Science & Architect Managers 9.3 University Professors 26.1 Ten Highest Paid Occupations in Canada Source: Statistics Canada 1998 GENDER RETURN:

Ten Lowest Paid Occupations in Canada Percentage Women Estheticians and related 96.4 Sewing Machine operators 91.8 Cashiers70.4 Ironing, Pressing and related 83.9 Artisans and Craftspersons 51.7 Bartenders54.5 Harvesting Labourers 53.5 Service Station attendants 20.0 Food Services 75.8 Babysitters, Nannies 97.9 GENDER RETURN:

GENDER RETURN: NEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World The Government of British Columbia has announced $1.8 million for the Women in Trades Training (WITT) initiative through the Industry Training Authority (ITA) to help support women to get the skills and training they need to start a career in the trades. The Government of British Columbia has announced $1.8 million for the Women in Trades Training (WITT) initiative through the Industry Training Authority (ITA) to help support women to get the skills and training they need to start a career in the trades. Women in Trades Training Women in Trades Training While there are more and more women pursuing trades careers in British Columbia, the percentage of male journeymen is still significantly higher than females. With the addition of nearly one million job openings expected in the province by 2024, women will play an increasingly important role in keeping B.C.’s economy diverse, strong and growing. While there are more and more women pursuing trades careers in British Columbia, the percentage of male journeymen is still significantly higher than females. With the addition of nearly one million job openings expected in the province by 2024, women will play an increasingly important role in keeping B.C.’s economy diverse, strong and growing. Through the Women in Trades Training Initiative, the Industry Training Authority is working with Camosun College, Okanagan College, Thompson Rivers University, and the Trades Training Society to deliver programs specifically designed to help women kick start their trades careers. Through the Women in Trades Training Initiative, the Industry Training Authority is working with Camosun College, Okanagan College, Thompson Rivers University, and the Trades Training Society to deliver programs specifically designed to help women kick start their trades careers. “If we want a strong and vibrant economic future, then it is key that strong and vibrant women help drive it,” Premier Christy Clark said. “A great opportunity for women to help drive the economy is through careers in the skilled trades. And the Women in Trades Training initiative will help give women the support and training they need to succeed.” “If we want a strong and vibrant economic future, then it is key that strong and vibrant women help drive it,” Premier Christy Clark said. “A great opportunity for women to help drive the economy is through careers in the skilled trades. And the Women in Trades Training initiative will help give women the support and training they need to succeed.” http://victoriabuzz.com/2016/03/government-announces-support-women-start-career-trades/ http://victoriabuzz.com/2016/03/government-announces-support-women-start-career-trades/ http://victoriabuzz.com/2016/03/government-announces-support-women-start-career-trades/

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World Discrimination against women at the workplace: the glass ceiling Discrimination against women at the workplace: the glass ceiling Women hold less than 6 percent of senior management jobs in the world. The International labour Organization estimates that, at the present rate of progress worldwide, it would take 475 years for parity to be achieved between women and men in top managerial and administrative positions. Women hold less than 6 percent of senior management jobs in the world. The International labour Organization estimates that, at the present rate of progress worldwide, it would take 475 years for parity to be achieved between women and men in top managerial and administrative positions.

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World Gender Inequality in Income and Wealth: Gender Inequality in Income and Wealth: At all levels of completed education women earn less than men At all levels of completed education women earn less than men The majority of women earn, on average, about three-fourths of the male wage for the same work outside the agricultural sector, in both developed and developing countries (Source: Un Urn. 1996. More and Better Jobs for Women: An Action Guide. Geneva: The International Labour Organization, pp. 11, 14). The majority of women earn, on average, about three-fourths of the male wage for the same work outside the agricultural sector, in both developed and developing countries (Source: Un Urn. 1996. More and Better Jobs for Women: An Action Guide. Geneva: The International Labour Organization, pp. 11, 14). Women make up nearly 70 percent of the world's poor Women make up nearly 70 percent of the world's poor

Reproduced by authority of the Minister of Industry, 1996, Statistics Canada, from Earnings of Men and Women 1990, Cat. no. 13-217. Wage Gaps between male and female earnings: 1969- 1990 GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World: Canada’s Wage Gap

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World: Actual and Projected Wage Gaps: Male & Female Earnings, Canada 1994200120112031 All Ages27.529.226.521.9 Age 25-4420.921.317.616.9 Age 45-6442.943.638.829.0 Source: Kelly Ruthie. Economist Ltd. Spring 2002, Volume 7 No. 1

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World Earning Gaps in Selected Countries Russia92% Russia92% Japan91% Japan91% China90% China90% Argentina89% Argentina89% Mexico, Uruguay82% Mexico, Uruguay82% Brazil, Portugal, Germany80% Brazil, Portugal, Germany80% Poland, Zambia, Greece78% Poland, Zambia, Greece78% Italy, Egypt76% Italy, Egypt76% Hungary75% Hungary75% Sweden65% Sweden65% Sri Lanka, Iceland59% Sri Lanka, Iceland59% Australia 41% Australia 41% Tanzania, Vietnam40% Tanzania, Vietnam40% Canada, USA25% Canada, USA25% Source: Seager (1997): The State of Women in the World Atlas (2 nd Ed.), London: Penquin Reference, pp. 68-69. Source: Seager (1997): The State of Women in the World Atlas (2 nd Ed.), London: Penquin Reference, pp. 68-69.

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Own the World

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men have more leisure time at home Did you know? Did you know? Married mothers spend about twice as much time per week on child care and housework as married fathers. Mothers spend about 13 hours per week on child care and 19 hours on housework compared to 7 and 10, respectively, for fathers (Witt & Hermiston 2010, p. 269). Married mothers spend about twice as much time per week on child care and housework as married fathers. Mothers spend about 13 hours per week on child care and 19 hours on housework compared to 7 and 10, respectively, for fathers (Witt & Hermiston 2010, p. 269).

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Rule the World Gender inequality in Politics: Gender inequality in Politics: Before 1918 women could not vote in Canadian federal elections Before 1918 women could not vote in Canadian federal elections By 1940 all eligible women could vote in both federal and provincial elections By 1940 all eligible women could vote in both federal and provincial elections Today Canadian women are involved in politics at all levels but primarily at the municipal level Today Canadian women are involved in politics at all levels but primarily at the municipal level In 2007-2010 the leader of the NDP in BC was a woman, and many women have taken dominant roles in both federal and provincial cabinets. In 2007-2010 the leader of the NDP in BC was a woman, and many women have taken dominant roles in both federal and provincial cabinets. Currently Premier (elected) of BC is a woman. Currently Premier (elected) of BC is a woman. There has been one unelected Female Prime Minister in the history of Canada There has been one unelected Female Prime Minister in the history of Canada

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Rule the World Canada continues to lag behind other countries in the world in terms of the number of women in its national legislature. Women in Wales recently gained 50% of their Assembly, and women in Sweden are 45%, and in Rwanda 48.5%. Canada ranks way down the list - 36th in the country rankings by the number of women in our last Parliament (Dateline, Tuesday June 29, 2004). Canada continues to lag behind other countries in the world in terms of the number of women in its national legislature. Women in Wales recently gained 50% of their Assembly, and women in Sweden are 45%, and in Rwanda 48.5%. Canada ranks way down the list - 36th in the country rankings by the number of women in our last Parliament (Dateline, Tuesday June 29, 2004).

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Rule the World The representation of women in Canada’s Senate is considerably higher than in the House of Commons, with 35% of Senate seats held by women. The representation of women in Canada’s Senate is considerably higher than in the House of Commons, with 35% of Senate seats held by women. The representation of women on municipal councils (21.7%) The representation of women on municipal councils (21.7%) In provincial/territorial legislatures the proportion is (20.6%), similar to that at the federal level. In provincial/territorial legislatures the proportion is (20.6%), similar to that at the federal level. With 32% of seats in the National Assembly held by women, Quebec has become first among the federal/provincial/territorial jurisdictions in Canada to meet the critical threshold of 30%. With 32% of seats in the National Assembly held by women, Quebec has become first among the federal/provincial/territorial jurisdictions in Canada to meet the critical threshold of 30%.

GENDER RETURN: INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: Men Rule the World WOMEN IN CANADIAN HOUSE OF COMMONS SINCE 1984 YEARTOTAL NUMBER OF SEATS SEATS HELD BY WOMEN PROPORTION OF SEATS HELD BY WOMEN 1984228279.6% 19882953913.4% 19932955318.0% 19973016220.6% 20003016220.6% 20043086521.1% 2006 2008 308 64 68 20.8% 22.1%

MUSCULLINEFEMININE FEMININITYMUSCULINITY SEX DIFFERENCES Culture and Social Structure INEQUITY/INEQUALITY: GENDER RELATIONS UNEQUAL GENDER RELATIONS

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE OLD GENDER GAP SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE OLD GENDER GAP

GENDER GAP IS SOCIALLY CONTRUCTED AND THEREFORE SUBJECT TO CHANGE Did you know that in the mid-nineteenth century Britain organized a phobic campaign to “feminize” women? (McNally 2006, p. 173) Did you know that there was a concerted effort to stop women from working in the mines, and that this had little to do with concerns for their safety and much to do with anxieties created by women covered in dirt and sweat, wielding shovels—dangerous beings who posed a threat to the totality of bourgeois civilization? (ibid.).

GENDER GAP IS SOCIALLY CONTRUCTED AND THEREFORE SUBJECT TO CHANGE Did you know that up to the eighteenth century women in Europe were integral part of what are now male-dominated trades and professions? (McNally 2006). Did you know that it was with industrialism that the female role came to be that of nurturing parent and homemaker, the creator of a haven in a heartless world, and at that time, employment legislation began to remove children and women from workplaces ? (Lasch 1977; cited in Symbaluk & bereska 2016, p. 148)

GENDER GAP IS SOCIALLY CONTRUCTED AND THEREFORE SUBJECT TO CHANGE CROSS-CULTURAL EVIDENCE: CROSS-CULTURAL EVIDENCE: Did you know that there is standardized male personality and standardized female personality in each culture. But the differences in the standards across cultures are amazing? (Margaret Mead 1935: 205). Did you know that there is standardized male personality and standardized female personality in each culture. But the differences in the standards across cultures are amazing? (Margaret Mead 1935: 205). 1. Arapesh (Papua New Guinea): Mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive man and mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive woman. 1. Arapesh (Papua New Guinea): Mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive man and mild, gentle, nurturing, responsive woman. 2. Mundugumor (Pappua New Guinea): Competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive man and competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive woman 2. Mundugumor (Pappua New Guinea): Competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive man and competitive, fierce, violent, aggressive woman 3. Tchambuli (Papua New Guinea): Dominant, impersonal, assertive, managing woman and less responsible, emotionally dependent man dressed up in frilly clothes, wearing makeup, and even giggle a lot. 3. Tchambuli (Papua New Guinea): Dominant, impersonal, assertive, managing woman and less responsible, emotionally dependent man dressed up in frilly clothes, wearing makeup, and even giggle a lot.

GENDER GAP IS SOCIALLY CONTRUCTED AND THEREFORE SUBJECT TO CHANGE GENDER GAP IS SOCIALLY CONTRUCTED AND THEREFORE SUBJECT TO CHANGE – –Hence the New Gender Gap

NEW GENDER GAP – –The End of Men: Boys are Marginalized? – –Women’s Wellbeing/Happiness

NEW GENDER GAP: The End of Men

The changes in the global political economy are affecting men and women very differently. In fact the most distinctive change is probably the emergence of an American matriarchy, where the younger men especially are unmoored, and closer than at any other time in history to being obsolete—at least by most traditional measures of social utility. And the women are left picking up the pieces (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 82). The changes in the global political economy are affecting men and women very differently. In fact the most distinctive change is probably the emergence of an American matriarchy, where the younger men especially are unmoored, and closer than at any other time in history to being obsolete—at least by most traditional measures of social utility. And the women are left picking up the pieces (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 82).

NEW GENDER GAP: The End of Men Since 2000, the manufacturing economy has lost almost six million jobs, more than a third of its total workforce, and has taken in few young workers. The housing bubble masked this new reality for a while, creating work in construction and related industries. But then that market crashed as well. During the same period, meanwhile, health and education have added about the same number of jobs. But those sectors continue to be heavily dominated by women, while the men concentrate themselves more than ever in the industries— construction, transportation, and utilities—that are fading away (ibid., p. 83). Since 2000, the manufacturing economy has lost almost six million jobs, more than a third of its total workforce, and has taken in few young workers. The housing bubble masked this new reality for a while, creating work in construction and related industries. But then that market crashed as well. During the same period, meanwhile, health and education have added about the same number of jobs. But those sectors continue to be heavily dominated by women, while the men concentrate themselves more than ever in the industries— construction, transportation, and utilities—that are fading away (ibid., p. 83).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE UNDERACHIEVING More boys (10.3%) than girls (6.6%) are dropping out of High School in Canada (Maclean’s Magazine, October 25, 2010). More boys (10.3%) than girls (6.6%) are dropping out of High School in Canada (Maclean’s Magazine, October 25, 2010).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE UNDERACHIEVING University graduation rates of women in Canada is 18 percentage points higher than men (43% versus 25%) – (Maclean’s Magazine, October 25, 2010, p. 68). University graduation rates of women in Canada is 18 percentage points higher than men (43% versus 25%) – (Maclean’s Magazine, October 25, 2010, p. 68).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE UNDERACHIEVING The education gap is widening not just in the United States [and Canada], but all over the world. Each year the organization for Economic Cooperation and Development publishes data on college graduation rates in thirty-four industrial democracies. In twenty-seven of those countries, women have more college degrees than men…The same is true in less prosperous countries as well, according to a UNESCO report. In Latin America, the Caribbean, Central Asia, and the Arab States—nearly everywhere except Africa— women outnumber men in college. In some surprising countries—Bahrain, Qatar, and Guyana—women make up nearly 70 percent of college graduates (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 150-151). The education gap is widening not just in the United States [and Canada], but all over the world. Each year the organization for Economic Cooperation and Development publishes data on college graduation rates in thirty-four industrial democracies. In twenty-seven of those countries, women have more college degrees than men…The same is true in less prosperous countries as well, according to a UNESCO report. In Latin America, the Caribbean, Central Asia, and the Arab States—nearly everywhere except Africa— women outnumber men in college. In some surprising countries—Bahrain, Qatar, and Guyana—women make up nearly 70 percent of college graduates (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 150-151).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE UNDERACHIEVING Schools have in effect become microcosms of the larger economy. Richard Whitmire, author of Why Boys Fail, summarizes the trend this way: “The world has gotten more verbal; boys haven’t” (Ibid., p. 162). Schools have in effect become microcosms of the larger economy. Richard Whitmire, author of Why Boys Fail, summarizes the trend this way: “The world has gotten more verbal; boys haven’t” (Ibid., p. 162).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE UNDERACHIEVING While professional women are ready for marriage many men their age are still playing video games (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 40). While professional women are ready for marriage many men their age are still playing video games (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 40).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED In 2010, market researcher James Chung stumbled on a data set that seemed to illuminate a whole new future America. He looked at two thousand metropolitan regions in the United States, covering 91 percent of the population. In 1,997 of them, the young women had a median income higher than the young men. This held true in big cities and small ones, richer and poorer. Chung’s findings made the cover of Time magazine, with Chung becoming an oracle for a fast- approaching gender upheaval. “These women haven’t just caught up with the guys,” he said. “In many cities they’re clocking them. We’ve known for a long time that women are graduating at higher rates than men, and the question was; Did that translate into greater economic power? Now we have our answer. This generation of women has adapted to the fundamental restructuring of the economy better than their male peers.” (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 107). In 2010, market researcher James Chung stumbled on a data set that seemed to illuminate a whole new future America. He looked at two thousand metropolitan regions in the United States, covering 91 percent of the population. In 1,997 of them, the young women had a median income higher than the young men. This held true in big cities and small ones, richer and poorer. Chung’s findings made the cover of Time magazine, with Chung becoming an oracle for a fast- approaching gender upheaval. “These women haven’t just caught up with the guys,” he said. “In many cities they’re clocking them. We’ve known for a long time that women are graduating at higher rates than men, and the question was; Did that translate into greater economic power? Now we have our answer. This generation of women has adapted to the fundamental restructuring of the economy better than their male peers.” (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 107).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2011, women hold 51.4 percent of managerial and professional jobs—up from 26. 1 percent in 1980. They make up 61.3 percent of all accountants…In France women make up to 58 percent of doctors under age thirty five, and in Spain, it’s 64 percent (Rosin 2012, p. 117). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2011, women hold 51.4 percent of managerial and professional jobs—up from 26. 1 percent in 1980. They make up 61.3 percent of all accountants…In France women make up to 58 percent of doctors under age thirty five, and in Spain, it’s 64 percent (Rosin 2012, p. 117).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED The number of women with six-figure incomes is rising at a much faster pace than it is for men (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 198). The number of women with six-figure incomes is rising at a much faster pace than it is for men (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 198).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED The Gold Misses: Asian Women take over the World” (ibid., p. 211). The Gold Misses: Asian Women take over the World” (ibid., p. 211).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED For the first time in history, the global economy is becoming a place where women are finding more success than men…because this new economy requires what economists call “people skills” and “creative ideas”; new workers—”caring agents” who go far beyond giving and receiving instructions. They display a talent for successfully interpreting feelings and ideas which technology cannot make obsolete and cannot be done by someone overseas (Rosin 2012, pp. 117-120) For the first time in history, the global economy is becoming a place where women are finding more success than men…because this new economy requires what economists call “people skills” and “creative ideas”; new workers—”caring agents” who go far beyond giving and receiving instructions. They display a talent for successfully interpreting feelings and ideas which technology cannot make obsolete and cannot be done by someone overseas (Rosin 2012, pp. 117-120)

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED Women have written the blueprint for the workplace of the future. The only question left is, will the men really adapt? (Rosin 2012, p. 141). Women have written the blueprint for the workplace of the future. The only question left is, will the men really adapt? (Rosin 2012, p. 141).

NEW GENDER GAP: BOYS ARE MARGINALIZED Sarah works because she has the ‘more ready skills set’ to succeed as a lawyer, and Steven stays home because in this modern economy ‘testosterone has been marginalized’ (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 75) Sarah works because she has the ‘more ready skills set’ to succeed as a lawyer, and Steven stays home because in this modern economy ‘testosterone has been marginalized’ (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 75)

GENDER GAP: TRANSITION TO A NEW ERA Transition not yet complete: Transition not yet complete: –Steven stays home during the day, but in fact Sarah is in charge of both realms. By deciding to work full-time she has not actually ceded the domestic space, but only doubled her load (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 76).

NEW GENDER GAP – –Women’s Wellbeing/Happiness – –Globally women are emerging from the economic and educational domination. However, the patriarchal ideology is not changing fast enough to facilitate women’s liberation. This CULTURAL LAG is contributing to the distress and unhappiness of women.

NEW GENDER GAP: Professional Women’s Distress In short, the minute I found myself in a job that is typical for the vast majority of working women (and men), working long hours on someone else’s schedule, I could no longer be both the parent and the professional I wanted to be—at least not with a child experiencing a rocky adolescence. I realized what should have perhaps been obvious: having it all, at least for me, depended almost entirely on what type of job I had. The flip side is the harder truth: having it all was not possible in many types of jobs, including high government office—at least not for very long ( http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/why-women-still-cant-have-it- all/309020/).

NEW GENDER GAP: Professional Women’s Distress I am hardly alone in this realization. Michèle Flournoy stepped down after three years as undersecretary of defense for policy, the third-highest job in the department, to spend more time at home with her three children, two of whom are teenagers. Karen Hughes left her position as the counselor to President George W. Bush after a year and a half in Washington to go home to Texas for the sake of her family. Mary Matalin, who spent two years as an assistant to Bush and the counselor to Vice President Dick Cheney before stepping down to spend more time with her daughters, wrote: “Having control over your schedule is the only way that women who want to have a career and a family can make it work.” (ibid.). Yet the decision to step down from a position of power—to value family over professional advancement, even for a time—is directly at odds with the prevailing social pressures on career professionals in the United States. (ibid.).

NEW GENDER GAP: Professional Women’s Distress t is time for women in leadership positions to recognize that although we are still blazing trails and breaking ceilings, many of us are also reinforcing a falsehood: that “having it all” is, more than anything, a function of personal determination. As Kerry Rubin and Lia Macko, the authors of Midlife Crisis at 30, their cri de coeur for Gen-X and Gen-Y women, put it: – –What we discovered in our research is that while the empowerment part of the equation has been loudly celebrated, there has been very little honest discussion among women of our age about the real barriers and flaws that still exist in the system despite the opportunities we inherited (Ibid.).

NEW GENDER GAP: Professional Women’s Distress African-American men and women have the greatest gender gap in college/university graduation rates, and Ebony magazine often laments how difficult it is for a black woman to find s suitable man (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 88-89). African-American men and women have the greatest gender gap in college/university graduation rates, and Ebony magazine often laments how difficult it is for a black woman to find s suitable man (Hanna Rosin 2012, p. 88-89).

NEW GENDER GAP: Professional Women’s Distress Nearly 70% of black American women are unmarried, and the racial gap in marriage spans the socioeconomic spectrum, from the urban poor to well-off suburban professionals. Three in 10 college-educated black women haven't married by age 40; their white peers are less than half as likely to have remained unwed. Nearly 70% of black American women are unmarried, and the racial gap in marriage spans the socioeconomic spectrum, from the urban poor to well-off suburban professionals. Three in 10 college-educated black women haven't married by age 40; their white peers are less than half as likely to have remained unwed. (R.R. Banks 2011).

NEW GENDER GAP: Women are Less Happy Millions of other working women face much more difficult life circumstances. Some are single mothers; many struggle to find any job; others support husbands who cannot find jobs. Many cope with a work life in which good day care is either unavailable or very expensive; school schedules do not match work schedules; and schools themselves are failing to educate their children. Many of these women are worrying not about having it all, but rather about holding on to what they do have. And although women as a group have made substantial gains in wages, educational attainment, and prestige over the past three decades, the economists Justin Wolfers and Betsey Stevenson have shown that women are less happy today than their predecessors were in 1972, both in absolute terms and relative to men (ibid.).

“HeForShe”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0Dg226G2Z8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0Dg226G2Z8 In response to the fact that the emergent new gender gap fails to eliminate or minimize female gender risk, the United Nations women have launched a new campaign called HeForShe, the first of its kind for the UN. The objective of the HeForShe campaign is to involve men and boys globally in the fight for gender equality. Over the next year, the campaign intends to mobilize one billion men and boys as advocates and agents of change for gender equality (NEXUS, “Campaign aims for equality”, October 15, 2014, p. 15). In response to the fact that the emergent new gender gap fails to eliminate or minimize female gender risk, the United Nations women have launched a new campaign called HeForShe, the first of its kind for the UN. The objective of the HeForShe campaign is to involve men and boys globally in the fight for gender equality. Over the next year, the campaign intends to mobilize one billion men and boys as advocates and agents of change for gender equality (NEXUS, “Campaign aims for equality”, October 15, 2014, p. 15).

THE SOCIOLOGICAL STANDPOINT ON THE GENDER GAP

THE SOCIOLOGICAL STANDPOINT “If differences between men and women were biologically determined, then they would be the same across cultures. But they aren’t” (McIntyre 2006: 240). “If differences between men and women were biologically determined, then they would be the same across cultures. But they aren’t” (McIntyre 2006: 240). In other words, sex type (XY and XX) doesn’t produce gender differences; rather gender socialization and social control are the factors that produce the differences in the experiences, behaviors, life chances, and destinies of boys/men and girls/women. In other words, sex type (XY and XX) doesn’t produce gender differences; rather gender socialization and social control are the factors that produce the differences in the experiences, behaviors, life chances, and destinies of boys/men and girls/women.

THE SOCIOLOGICAL STANDPOINT Arguments that assign “an evolutionary or genetic basis” to explain gender status and experiences are simplistic. They rest on dubious data, oversimplification in logic, and inappropriate inferences (Cynthia Fuchs Epstein 1989). Arguments that assign “an evolutionary or genetic basis” to explain gender status and experiences are simplistic. They rest on dubious data, oversimplification in logic, and inappropriate inferences (Cynthia Fuchs Epstein 1989).

OLD GENDER GAP: Sociological Standpoint Gender Socialization & Social Control: Gender Socialization & Social Control: –A process of imposing gender image on people and compelling them to incorporate gender into their personal identities. Gender roles are so reinforced by culture that they feel natural before people reach adulthood. At adulthood, men and women often occupy such different realities that they experience difficulty in the most basic of human task: that is, communicating with one another. Gender roles are so reinforced by culture that they feel natural before people reach adulthood. At adulthood, men and women often occupy such different realities that they experience difficulty in the most basic of human task: that is, communicating with one another. –Men are from ………. and Women from………?

OLD GENDER GAP: Sociological Standpoint Gender Socialization and social control at School: At Elementary School……… At high school……… At university………. –S–S–S–Sex-linked Majors: Females still tend to choose different majors and new areas of study are often sex-linked with males studying computer/rocket science and females taking gender studies/Nursing –U–U–U–Unequal Student-Teacher Interaction –T–T–T–The Chilly Climate

OLD GENDER GAP: Sociological Standpoint The Media and Gender Socialization/social control: The Media and Gender Socialization/social control: Mass media place males (masculinity) at center stage and females (femininity) as sex objects. Mass media place males (masculinity) at center stage and females (femininity) as sex objects. –The "beauty myth" remains a part of the culture of advertising Workplace Gender Socialization: Workplace Gender Socialization: “Pinkalization” of work, occupations, and professions. “Pinkalization” of work, occupations, and professions.

APPLICATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS

WHAT IS THE MAIN CAUSE OF GENDER INEQUALITY, OPPRESSION & RELATIONS? SEX DIFFERENCES & EVOLUTION: SEX DIFFERENCES & EVOLUTION: Paradigm: Sociobiology Paradigm: Sociobiology SOCIALIZATION FOR HOMEOSTASIS SOCIALIZATION FOR HOMEOSTASIS Paradigm: Functionalism Paradigm: Functionalism COMPETITION FOR SCARCE RESOURCES, particularly POWER COMPETITION FOR SCARCE RESOURCES, particularly POWER Paradigm: Social Conflict Paradigm: Social Conflict DEFINITION OF THE SEXES AND GENDER DEVELOPED THROUGH INTERACTION DEFINITION OF THE SEXES AND GENDER DEVELOPED THROUGH INTERACTION Paradigm: Interactionism Paradigm: Interactionism PATRIARCHAL NORMS: MALE POWER PATRIARCHAL NORMS: MALE POWER Paradigm: Feminism Paradigm: Feminism ELITE [HEGEMONIC] DISCOURSES OF GENDER PERFORMANCE ELITE [HEGEMONIC] DISCOURSES OF GENDER PERFORMANCE Paradigm: Postmodernism Paradigm: Postmodernism

FEMINIST PARADIGM AND GENDER PATRIARCHY: MALE POWER INEQUALITY AGAINST WOMEN & OPPRESSION OF WOMEN SOCIALIZATION, DISCRIMINATION, CONTROL, & EXPLOITATION Liberal Feminism Radical Feminism Marxist/Socialist Feminism Women of Color Feminism SEXISM (socialization, Labeling, discrimination) MALE VIOLENCE (control) CAPITALISM (exploitation) RACISM (discrimination)

INTERSECTIONALITY: Convergence of multiple inequities and inequalities and oppression: Gender, Class, Race, Ethnicity, Age, Sexuality Convergence of multiple inequities and inequalities and oppression: Gender, Class, Race, Ethnicity, Age, Sexuality –Womanism (video clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9Gi ZZ4W5h0) : Women, like men, come in all shades and hues—complexly connected to social class, education, race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, sexuality, age, etc. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9Gi ZZ4W5h0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9Gi ZZ4W5h0

INTERSECTIONALITY The tendency for class and ethnicity/race to amplify the effect of gender on a range of behaviours, including violence (Choo and Feree 2010). Example: Violence against women in lower classes and in disadvantaged ethnic and racial groups is higher than is violence against women in upper classes and in privileged ethnic/racial groups, both in Canada and other countries (Romero 2013). – –Gender risk is higher for girls/women of color in the lower classes than white and other women in the middle/upper classes

CONCLUSION http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ns wJ4kO9uHc http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ns wJ4kO9uHc

CONCLUSION: The Gender Gap: Is there any Hope? The best hope for improving the lot of all women, and for closing what Wolfers and Stevenson call a “new gender gap”—measured by well-being rather than wages—is to close the leadership gap: to elect a woman president and 50 women senators; to ensure that women are equally represented in the ranks of corporate executives and judicial leaders. Only when women wield power in sufficient numbers will we create a society that genuinely works for all women. That will be a society that works for everyone. (http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/201 2/07/why-women-still-cant-have-it-all/309020/).

CONCLUSION Sociology needs a new gender story to counter-balance the old gender story in order to avoid what a Nigerian young female novelist, Chimamanda Adichie, calls the “Danger of a Single Story” (http://www.ted.com/talks/chimaman da_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_st ory.html Sociology needs a new gender story to counter-balance the old gender story in order to avoid what a Nigerian young female novelist, Chimamanda Adichie, calls the “Danger of a Single Story” (http://www.ted.com/talks/chimaman da_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_st ory.htmlhttp://www.ted.com/talks/chimaman da_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_st ory.htmlhttp://www.ted.com/talks/chimaman da_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_st ory.html

APPENDIX 1. Sample Final Exam Questions 2. Diagrams

A SAMPLE FINAL EXAM QUESTION 1. A New Yorker cartoon depicts the important distinction between “sex” and “gender”, and remarks that “Sex brought us together, but gender draws us apart”. To what extent do you agree with this perception of the difference between sex and gender? What do you suggest to bridge the stated gap and why? Relate your answers to the sociological perspective of sex and gender, linking this perspective to the functionalist and feminist paradigms. 1. A New Yorker cartoon depicts the important distinction between “sex” and “gender”, and remarks that “Sex brought us together, but gender draws us apart”. To what extent do you agree with this perception of the difference between sex and gender? What do you suggest to bridge the stated gap and why? Relate your answers to the sociological perspective of sex and gender, linking this perspective to the functionalist and feminist paradigms.

A SAMPLE FINAL EXAM QUESTION 2. There has been, and there is, unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige and privilege between the genderized sexes. The conclusion is that girls and women in most parts of the world have fewer of their society's valued resources than boys and men. What program(s) and strategy(ies) would you propose to change this pattern of inequality in the global community and why? Relate your answer to the concepts of social stratification, sex, and gender. What would be the responses of functionalist, social conflict, feminist, and interactionist paradigms to your answer? 2. There has been, and there is, unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige and privilege between the genderized sexes. The conclusion is that girls and women in most parts of the world have fewer of their society's valued resources than boys and men. What program(s) and strategy(ies) would you propose to change this pattern of inequality in the global community and why? Relate your answer to the concepts of social stratification, sex, and gender. What would be the responses of functionalist, social conflict, feminist, and interactionist paradigms to your answer?

SOCIOBIOLOGICAL PARADIGM OF GENDER XY MALE BOY/MAN XX FEMALE GIRL/WOMAN NATURAL & INEVITABLE 1.Maternal Instinct 2. Intuitive 3. Tricky 4. Nurturant 5. Moral 1. More intelligent 2. Superior visual and spatial abilities 3. Mathematical 4. Aggressive; violent

FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM OF GENDER

SOCIAL CONFLICT PARADIGM AND GENDER CONFLICT & CHANGE EXPLOITATION & EXCLUSION COMPETITION FOR SCARCE RESOURCES

INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM AND GENDER DEFINITION OF SEX DIFERENCES & LABELLING GENDER DIFFERENCES, IMAGES & IDENTITIES SYMBOLIC/SOCIAL MALE/ BOY/MAN FEMALE/ GIRL/WOMAN INTERACTION

GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES © Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2016.

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GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES © Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2016.

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Presentation on theme: "GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES GENDER RISK and GENDER RETURN IN STRATIFIED SOCIETIES © Dr. Francis Adu-Febiri, 2016."— Presentation transcript:

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